J. Semicond. > 2018, Volume 39 > Issue 6 > 061001, doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/39/6/061001
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SPECIAL ISSUE ON Si-BASED MATERIALS AND DEVICES

Emerging technologies in Si active photonics

Xiaoxin Wang and Jifeng Liu

+ Author Affiliations

 Corresponding author: Xiaoxin Wang, Wang@Dartmouth.Edu; Jifeng Liu, Jifeng.Liu@Dartmouth.Edu

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Abstract: Silicon photonics for synergistic electronic–photonic integration has achieved remarkable progress in the past two decades. Active photonic devices, including lasers, modulators, and photodetectors, are the key challenges for Si photonics to meet the requirement of high bandwidth and low power consumption in photonic datalinks. Here we review recent efforts and progress in high-performance active photonic devices on Si, focusing on emerging technologies beyond conventional foundry-ready Si photonics devices. For emerging laser sources, we will discuss recent progress towards efficient monolithic Ge lasers, mid-infrared GeSn lasers, and high-performance InAs quantum dot lasers on Si for data center applications in the near future. We will then review novel modulator materials and devices beyond the free carrier plasma dispersion effect in Si, including GeSi and graphene electro-absorption modulators and plasmonic-organic electro-optical modulators, to achieve ultralow power and high speed modulation. Finally, we discuss emerging photodetectors beyond epitaxial Ge p–i–n photodiodes, including GeSn mid-infrared photodetectors, all-Si plasmonic Schottky infrared photodetectors, and Si quanta image sensors for non-avalanche, low noise single photon detection and photon counting. These emerging technologies, though still under development, could make a significant impact on the future of large-scale electronicSilicon photonics for synergistic electronic-photonic integration has achieved remarkable progress in the past two decades. Active photonic devices, including lasers, modulators, and photodetectors, are the key challenges for Si photonics to meet the requirement of high bandwidth and low power consumption in photonic datalinks. Here we review recent efforts and progress in high-performance active photonic devices on Si, focusing on emerging technologies beyond conventional foundry-ready Si photonics devices. For emerging laser sources, we will discuss recent progress towards efficient monolithic Ge lasers, mid-infrared GeSn lasers, and high-performance InAs quantum dot lasers on Si for data center applications in the near future. We will then review novel modulator materials and devices beyond the free carrier plasma dispersion effect in Si, including GeSi and graphene electro-absorption modulators and plasmonic-organic electro–optical modulators, to achieve ultralow power and high speed modulation. Finally, we discuss emerging photodetectors beyond epitaxial Ge p–i–n photodiodes, including GeSn mid-infrared photodetectors, all-Si plasmonic Schottky infrared photodetectors, and Si quanta image sensors for non-avalanche, low noise single photon detection and photon counting. These emerging technologies, though still under development, could make a significant impact on the future of large-scale electronic–photonic integration with performance inaccessible from conventional Si photonics technologies-photonic integration with performance inaccessible from conventional Si photonics technologies.

Key words: silicon photonics, laser, modulator, photodetector, single photon detection, electronic-photonic integration



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Fig. 1.  (Color online) Silicon photonics 2015–2025 market forecast. Reprinted from Ref. [8]. Silicon Photonics Report with permission from Yole Développement. © Yole Développement 2016.

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Fig. 2.  (Color online) (a) Absorption spectrum of 0.25% tensile strained n+ Ge on Si, n = 1 × 1019 cm−3. Regions I–IV are dominated by intra-L-valley FEA, L-to-Γ intervalley scattering absorption (IVSA), indirect gap absorption, and direct gap absorption, respectively. The inset schematically shows intra-L-valley FEA versus IVSA from the L to the Γ valley. Reprinted from Ref. [32] under the Author’s (Wang and Liu’s) Copyright Transfer Agreement with the OSA. (b) Comparison to FEA in n-GaAs, which also demonstrates IVSA except that for direct bandgap GaAs the direction is from Γ to L valleys, opposite to Ge. Reprinted from Ref. [33] with permissions from American Physical Society (APS). (c) FEA coefficient αFEA as a function of injection level at λ = 1550 nm from the first principle model in comparison to the Drude model. The Drude model overestimates the FEA by one order of magnitude. (d) Refined modeling of net gain versus injection level for 0.25% tensile strained Ge with n = 4.5 × 1019 cm−3 at λ = 1700, 1650, 1600, and 1550 nm. The model considers band gap narrowing (BGN) and uses FEA from the first principle model instead of the Drude model. A broad gain spectrum from 1700 to 1550 nm is predicted for an injection level of > 5 × 10 19 cm−3. (c) and (d) are reprinted with permission from Ref. [34]. © 2013 IEEE.

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Fig. 4.  (Color online) (a) A typical emission spectrum of an electrically pumped band-engineered Ge-on-Si laser diode. The inset schematically shows the cross-section of the device. The width of the Ge waveguide is 1 μm and the length is 270 μm. (b) L–I curve for the 270 μm long waveguide device. 40 μs-long electrical pulses with 1 kHz repetition rate was used for electrical injection. Spectra of Ge lasers with different Ge layer thicknesses are shown in (c), (d) and (e). All panels are reprinted from Ref. [18] with permission of OSA ©2012.

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Fig. 3.  (Color online) (a) Edge-emission spectra of a Ge-on-Si waveguide with mirror polished facets at different optical pumping levels. With the increase of pumping pulse energy the spectrum evolves from broad spontaneous emission to sharp lines of stimulated emission. The inset shows a cross-sectional SEM picture of the Ge waveguide. (b) Integral emission intensity from the waveguide facet versus optical pump power showing the lasing threshold. (a) and (b) are reprinted from Ref. [42] under the Author’s Copyright Transfer Agreement with the OSA (c) Schematic illustration showing optical gain measurement setup in Ref. [43]. (d) Typical edge-emitted optical power from the n+-Ge reverse-rib waveguide structure in Ref. [43] as a function of input pumping laser power. The inset shows a cross-sectional SEM image of the reverse Ge rib waveguide structure. (c) and (d) are reprinted with permission from Ref. [43]. © 2016, the Electrochemical Society (ECS).

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Fig. 5.  (Color online) (a) Ge tunneling junction for direct Zener-BTBT injection. The direct onset is visible by a small kink under reverse bias. (b) Optical amplification by the Zener-Emitter under electrical pumping for a 1 mm long, 1.6 μm wide device. (c) Mono-mode lasing at 0.4 mW optical signal input, 110 mA electrical pumping (3.2 mm length) and 1.65 mW output power at room temperature. Reprinted with authors’ permission from Ref. [19].

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Fig. 6.  (Color online) (a) Energy difference between the indirect and direct gap (EgL–EgΓ) versus biaxial tensile strain and Sn atomic percentage for (100)-oriented GeSn. (b) Direct band gap EgΓ as a function of biaxial tensile strain and Sn atomic concentration. Adapted from Ref. [9] with permission under MDPI’s Open Access Information and Policy.

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Fig. 7.  (Color online) Power and temperature dependence of GeSn lasers for different Sn contents. (a) Temperature-dependent spectra of 8 μm diameter microdisks from samples A (8.5 at.% Sn) and B (12.5 at.%) at 820 kW/cm2 pump power density. L–L curves at different temperatures are shown in (b) for sample B and (c) for sample A. (d) Schematics of the GeSn microcavity structure. Reprinted with permission from ACS Publications ©2016[64].

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Fig. 8.  (Color online) (a) InAs QD laser structure grown on Ge buffer layer on offcut Si (100) substrate[88]. Reprinted with permission from AIP Publishing, LLC. (b) High resolution cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM) image of the ultrathin AlAs nucleation layer on off-axis Si(100) substrate. (c) HRTEM image of the strained-layer superlattice structures (SLSs) to filter the threading dislocations. From positions 1-6, the threading dislocation density is decreased from 109 to 105 cm−2. (b) and (c) are reprinted from Ref. [89] with permission from Nature Publishing Group.

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Fig. 9.  (Color online) (a) Schematics of band-to-band optical absorption in a bulk semiconductor material (a) without an applied electric field; and (b) under an applied electric field (Franz-Keldysh effect). (c) Corresponding absorption spectra of the bulk semiconductor material with and without an electric field. (d) The transmission probability through a rectangular potential barrier with a height of V0 = 0.1 eV and a width of 4.5 nm as a function of the electron energy normalized to V0. The finite tunneling probability at E < V0 and oscillations at E > V0 closely resemble the features of the absorption spectrum under an electric field in (c). Panels (a–c) are reproduced from Ref. [9] with permission under MDPI’s Open Access Information and Policy. Panel (d) is reproduced from Ref. [98] under Wiley Author’s (Liu’s) Rights of Reuse, License Number 4193800778386.

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Fig. 10.  (Color online) (a) Experimental and theoretical absorption spectra of 0.2% tensile strained Ge-on-Si under applied electric fields of 14 and 70 kV/cm. (b) Experimental and theoretical absorption contrast spectra (corresponding to (a)) for 0.2% tensile strained Ge-on-Si. The inset shows the calculated refractive index change Δn and absorption contrast Δα/α at λ = 1647 nm as a function of applied electric field. The inset is reproduced from Ref. [101] with permission from AIP Publishing LLC ©2006. (c) Absorption contrast, Δα/α, as a function of wavelength for GeSi alloys with different Si compositions. The GeSi is 0.26% uniaxially strained along the <110> direction. (d) Δα/α at λ = 1550 nm as a function of Si composition. In (c) and (d) we assumed an applied electric field of 100 kV/cm and a built-in field of 10 kV/cm at 0 V in the intrinsic GeSi region. Panels (a–c) are reproduced from Ref. [98] under Wiley Authors’ (Liu’s) Rights of Reuse, License Number 4193800778386. Panel (d) is reproduced from Ref. [102] under the Author’s (Liu’s) Copyright Transfer Agreement with OSA.

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Fig. 11.  (a) Conduction and (b) valence band offsets of pseudomorphic (lattice matched) Si1–xGex grown on <001> Si 1–yGey. Note that the conduction band offset is based upon the indirect conduction valley with the minimal energy. Reproduced from Ref. [103] with the permission from the American Physical Society.

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Fig. 12.  (Color online) (a) Transmission spectra of an unpackaged 10-channel GeSi FKE modulator + multiplexer array chip reported by Krishnamoorthy et al. (Ref. [113]). (b) Eye diagrams at 10.25 Gb/s for a packaged 9-channel device chip. Center wavelength is 1532 nm and separation between channels is 1.6 nm. Reproduced from Ref. [113] with permission from OSA.

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Fig. 13.  (Color online) (a) Schematics of the band structures/band filling of graphene and the corresponding optical transmission at 1530 nm versus applied voltage through the EAM device reported in Ref. [124]. In the band diagrams, red parts refer to occupied states, while green parts refer to unoccupied sates. Left panel: under electron depletion (large negative voltage); Middle panel: under low bias (nearly intrinsic); Right panel: under electron accumulation (large positive bias). (b) 3D schematics of the graphene EAM device. (c) Cross-section of the graphene EAM device with an overlay of the optical mode (TM mode) calculated by finite element simulation. The waveguide was designed so as to maximize the field at the interface between the waveguide and the graphene for optimal EA efficiency. Reproduced from Ref. [124] with permission from the Nature Publishing Group.

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Fig. 14.  (Color online) (a) Static response of a double layer graphene modulator with Al2O3 spacer in between. Modulation depth of ~6.5 dB can be achieved using a 40 μm long device (0.16 dB/μm) at 1537 nm wavelength. (b) The graphene band structure/band filling profiles (green for unoccupied state, red for occupied states) for regions I, II, and III in (a). The arrows represent the incident photons. The inset is a schematic illustration of the double layer graphene modulator. Reprinted from Ref. [129] with permission from ACS Publishing.

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Fig. 15.  (Color online) An all-plasmonic MZI modulator. (a) Colorized SEM image of the modulator. The plasmonic interferometer is formed by the metallic island and the metallic contact pads. An electrical signal can be applied to the island via a suspended bridge. (b) Finite element simulations showing the plasmonic modes in the off-state and the on-state. In the off-state, the fields are out of phase at the output, while they are in phase in the on-state. Light is coupled to guided modes of the silicon waveguide only when the modulator is in the on-state. Figures reprinted from Ref. [143] with copyright permission from Nature Publishing Group.

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Fig. 16.  (Color online) (a) Schematic band diagram and working principle of metal/semiconductor Schottky IR photodetectors (original figure). (b) Simulated cross-secitonal optical intensity profile of a SPP waveguide mode supported by a metal−graphene−Si Schottky photodetector structure. (c) SEM micrograph of the waveguide coupled metal-graphene-silicon Schottky photodetector. (b) and (c) are reprinted from Ref. [162] with permission from ACS publication.

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Fig. 17.  (Color online) (a) Cross-sectional structure and doping profile of the Si QIS photon counting detector. Due to proprietary reasons, detailed doping concentration is not provided. Panels (b)-(d) show the potential profile of the device: (b) photon absorption and photoelectron generation in the SW region; (c) photoelectron transfer to the PW region when the TG is turned on; (d) further photoelectron transfer to the FD region for photovoltage readout. Reprinted with the Author’s permission from Ref. [166].

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Fig. 18.  (Color online) Photon counting histograms of (a) a “golden” jot of the first generation of Si QIS; (b) a jot in the second generation using punch-through reset to further decrease the capacitance and increase the photovoltage gain. Reprinted with the Author’s permission from Ref. [166].

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Table 1.   Silicon photonics process design kits (PDK) components and typical performance under AIM Photonics. Table retrieved from http://www.aimphotonics.com/pdk/[13].

PDK passive components Qty Selected performance
Waveguides (Si & SiN), curves, etc. 16+ Si : < 2.2 dB/cm, SiN : < 1 dB/cm
Edge couplers (Si & SiN) 2 < 2.5 dB/facet loss
Vertical couplers (Si & SiN) 2 < 3 dB loss
3 dB 4-port couplers (Si & SiN) 2 loss < 0.5 dB, deviation < 1%
Y-junctions (Si & SiN) 2 loss < 0.25 dB, deviation < 1%
Directional coupler (Si & SiN) 2 loss < 0.5 dB, deviation < 1% @ 1550 nm
Si-to-SiN coupler (escalator) 1 loss < 0.1 dB
Crossing (Si) 1 loss < 0.25 dB, crosstalk < −60 dB
PDK active devices Qty Selected performance
Digital Ge photodetector 1 > 30 GHz, < 20 nA dark
Analog Ge photodetector 1 > 25 GHz, < 80 nA dark
Digital Mach-Zehnder modulator 1 > 15 GHz, > 25 Gb/s, push-pull < 2 Vpp per arm, > 5 dB extinction, < 5 dB loss
Analog Mach-Zehnder modulator 1 > 15 GHz, −10 V < Vs < 0 V, 25 dB lin., 1500–1600 nm
Thermo-optic phase shifter (Si) 1 0.25 dB loss, < 50 mW, range 0π < Δθ < 2π
Thermo-optic switch (Si) 1 < 1 dB loss, 25 mW
Tunable filter (Si) 4 < 0.5 dB loss, 26 nm FSR, > 1 nm/mW tuning efficiency
Microdisk switch (tunable) 4 < 2 ns switch time, > 200 GHz EO tuning @ 1.2 V
Microdisk modulator (tunable) 4 15 GHz, 25 Gb/s, 1.2 Vpp, 1 dB loss, 8 dB extinction
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Table 2.   Recent progress in optically pumped Ge1-xSnx lasers.

Year xSn (at.%) Strain (%) Laser structure Threshold (kW/cm2) Lasing wavelength (μm) Operating
temperature (K)
2015 Wirths et al.[20] 12.6 −0.71 Fabry–Perot cavity 325 at 20 K 2.3 ≤ 90
2016 Stange et al.[64] 12.5 −0.4 Microdisk 130 at 20 K 2.5 ≤ 130
2016 Al-Kabi et al.[63] 10.9 – Fabry–Perot 68 at 10 K 2500 ≤ 110
2017 Margetis et al.[21] 17.4 ~0 for the top layer Fabry–Perot 171 at 77 K Up to 2.900 at 77 K;
2.945 at 180 K 		≤ 180
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Table 3.   Summary of Ge and GeSi EAM performance, adapted from Refs. [9, 98].

Modulator type Optimal wave-length range (nm) Coupling method ER (dB) IL (dB) Band-width (GHz) Vpp (V) Active device area (μm2) Average dynamic energy per bit
$\frac{1}{4}$ CVpp2 (fJ/bit)
Ge and GeSi FKE modulators
2008[108]
Liu et al. 		1539–1553 Butt 8 3.7 1.2 3 (−4 to −7 V) 0.6×50 25a
2011[109]
Lim et al. 		1580–1610 Evanescent 10@
1600 nm 		9.6 1.25 Gb/s 5 0.8×20 102–103
2011[110]
Feng et al. 		1610–1640 Butt 6.3@
1620 nm 		3.6@
1620 nm 		30 4 1×45 ~70
2012[111]
Feng et al. 		1545–1581 Butt 6 5 40.7 2.8 1×55 60
2013[112]
Feng et al.l 		1525–1560 Butt 3.8 4.8 34 2 0.8×50 70
2014 Krishna-moorthy
et al.[113]		 1525–1555 Butt 3 3 >40;
>10 Gb/s
for 9 channels 		2 – 50 for EAM;
570 including driverb
2015[114]
Gupta et al. 		1600–1630 Evanescent (with taper) 4.6 4.1 50 2 – 10
2016[115]
Srinivasan et al. 		1600–1630 Evanescent (with taper) 4.8 4.6 56 Gbps 2 0.6×40 12.8
Ge QCSE modulators
2007 Roth
et al.[116]
 1441–1461 Side-entry 7.3@
1457 nm 		~9@
1457 nm 		– 10 450×450 –
2008 Roth
et al[105]
 1535–1545c Side-entry ~6@
1540 nm 		– – 4 225×625 –
2011 Chaisakul et al.[117]
 1415–1440 Fiber coupled 7/10@
1420 nm 		3/7 dB@
1420 nm 		– 6 L = 34 or
64 μm 		–
2012 Chaisakul et al.[118]
 1425–1446 Fiber coupled 9@
1435 nm Vpp=1 V 		15@
1435 nm,
(−3 V); 		23 1 (−3 to −4 V) 3×90 108
2012 Ren
et al. [119]		 1450–1470 @−4 V
DC bias d		 Butt >3.2@
1460 nm 		~15 3.5 1 (−3 to −5 V) 0.8×10 0.75
2014 Rouifed
et al.[107]
 1290–1310 Fiber coupled 6@
1293 nm 		2.5 – 7 3×150 –
a In Liu et al. 2008 a conservative estimate of 50 fJ/bit was reported based on $\frac{1}{2}$ CVpp2, considering the most power-consuming scenario of flipping between “on” and “off” states in every operation.
b Integrated with 40 nm technology node CMOS driver and wavelength multiplexer. c Operating at 100 °C to reduce the direct band gap of the Ge QWs.
d The operation wavelength range could be redshifted up to 1550 nm at a DC bias of −7.5 and 1 V voltage swing judging from the photocurrent measurement. The direct modulation data is only available at 1460 nm with −4 V DC bias, though.
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Table 4.   Summary of the recent demonstration of GeSn detectors compared to free-space Ge p–i–n photodiodes in Ref. [26].

Year Structure xSn (%) Dark current (A/cm2) at −1 V Responsivity (A/W) Speed
2011 Werner[146] p–i–n 0.5 (MBE) 10 0.102 @ 0 V, 1550 nm
0.018 @ 0 V, 1640 nm 		–
2011 Roucka[147] p–i–n 2.0 (UHCVD) ~10 0.113 @ 0 V, 1550 nm
0.086 @ 0 V, 1640 nm 		–
2011 Su[148] p–i–n 3 (MBE) 2.36 0.23 @ −1 V, 1540 nm
0.12 @ −1 V, 1640 nm 		–
2012 Oehme[149] p–i–n 4 (MBE) 100 0.181 @ −0.1 V, 1550 nm
0.171 @ −0.1 V, 1600 nm 		–
2014 Oehme[150] p–i–n 4.2 (MBE) 0.9 0.218 @ −1 V, 1550 nm 40 GHz @−5 V, 1550 nm
2016 Pham[151] p–i–n 6.4 (CVD) 9.2 (CVD) 5.74 18 0.3 @ 0 V, 1550 nm
0.19 @ 0 V, 1550 nm
Cutoff 2.6 μm
2012 Gassenq[152] MSM Ge0.91Sn0.09/Ge quantum well, (CVD) – 0.1 @ −5 V, 2.2 μm 2 MHz
2017 Dong[153] p–i–n Ge0.9Sn0.1/Ge MQW (CVD) 0.031 0.216 @ −1 V, 1530 nm
0.023 @− 1 V, 2 μm 		1.2 GHz
2014 Peng[154] waveguide coupled p–i–n 1.28 (CVD) 6.75 0.27 @ 0 V, 1550 nm
0.124 @ 0 V, 1600 nm 		–
2005 Liu[26] p–i–n 0 (UHCVD) 0.2% tensile strained Ge 0.01 0.56 @ 0 V, 1550 nm
0.11 @ 0 V, 1605 nm 		8.5 GHz @ −1 V
DownLoad: CSV
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    Received: 15 August 2017 Revised: Online: Uncorrected proof: 30 January 2018Accepted Manuscript: 30 January 2018Published: 01 June 2018

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      Xiaoxin Wang, Jifeng Liu. Emerging technologies in Si active photonics[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2018, 39(6): 061001. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/39/6/061001 X X Wang, J F Liu. Emerging technologies in Si active photonics[J]. J. Semicond., 2018, 39(6): 061001. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/39/6/061001.Export: BibTex EndNote
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      Xiaoxin Wang, Jifeng Liu. Emerging technologies in Si active photonics[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2018, 39(6): 061001. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/39/6/061001

      X X Wang, J F Liu. Emerging technologies in Si active photonics[J]. J. Semicond., 2018, 39(6): 061001. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/39/6/061001.
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      Emerging technologies in Si active photonics

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