J. Semicond. > 2022, Volume 43 > Issue 2 > 021301, doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/43/2/021301
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REVIEWS

Avalanche photodiodes on silicon photonics

Yuan Yuan, Bassem Tossoun, Zhihong Huang, Xiaoge Zeng, Geza Kurczveil, Marco Fiorentino, Di Liang and Raymond G. Beausoleil

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 Corresponding author: Di Liang, di.liang@hpe.com

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Abstract: Silicon photonics technology has drawn significant interest due to its potential for compact and high-performance photonic integrated circuits. The Ge- or III–V material-based avalanche photodiodes integrated on silicon photonics provide ideal high sensitivity optical receivers for telecommunication wavelengths. Herein, the last advances of monolithic and heterogeneous avalanche photodiodes on silicon are reviewed, including different device structures and semiconductor systems.

Key words: avalanche photodiode, silicon photonics, photonic integrated circuit



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Fig. 1.  (Color online) Common structures of Si–Ge APDs with E-field: (a) lateral p–i–n Si–Ge–Si APD[18], (b) Ge on lateral SACM Si APD[19], (c) Ge on lateral p–i–n Si APD[20], (d) hybrid vertical and lateral p–i–n APD[21], (e) vertical SACM p–p–i–n APD[22], and (f) vertical SACM p–i–p–i–n APD[23, 24].

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Fig. 2.  (Color online) I–V curves and eye diagrams of (a) lateral p–i–n Si–Ge-Si APD[18], (b) Ge on lateral SACM Si APD[19], (c) Ge on lateral p–i–n Si APD[20], and (d) hybrid vertical and lateral p–i–n APD[21].

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Fig. 3.  (Color online) (a) A cross-sectional structure, (b) a simulated E-field distribution, (c) a gain vs bandwidth plot, temperature-dependent characteristics of (d) gain and breakdown voltage, (e) bandwidth, and (f) 32 Gb/s NRZ and 64 Gb/s PAM4 eye diagrams of the 4 × 10 µm2 Si–Ge SACM APD[22, 28, 31].

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Fig. 4.  (Color online) (a) Schematic of the Si–Ge APD with no reflector (Normal), a distributed Bragg reflector (DBR), and a loop reflector (LR), and (b) simulated absorption profiles. Comparison of (c) reflectivity, (d) photocurrent versus input power at unity gain point (e) impulse responses at gain ~ 10, 32 Gb/s NRZ bit error rate at bias voltage of (f) –8 V and (g) –10 V between the Normal, DBR1, DBR2, and LR APDs. (h) 40 Gb/s NRZ and 80 Gb/s PAM4 eye diagrams of the LR APD at bias of –10 V[32, 33].

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Fig. 5.  (Color online) Cross-sectional schematic of the InGaAs/InAlAs SACM APD directly on the InP/Si template[52].

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Fig. 6.  (Color online) (a) I–V and gain curves, (b) photocurrent versus input laser power at unity gain point, and (c) excess noise of the 20 µm-diameter InGaAs/InAlAs APD on Si. Temperature-dependent dark current versus bias voltage of the (d) 20 µm-diameter APD on Si and (e) 50 µm-diameter APD on InP. (f) Activation energies at –5 V for APDs on Si and InP[52].

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Fig. 7.  (Color online) (a) Cross-section schematic of the photodiode. (b) SEM cross section of the QD waveguide PD on Si[59].

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Fig. 8.  (Color online) (a) Dark current vs. temperature for a 11 × 60 µm2 APD. (b) Spectral response versus voltage of a 11 × 90 µm2 APD. (c) Gain with quasi-TE mode and quasi-TM mode coupled into a 12 × 150 µm2 APD. (d) Output frequency response of a 3 × 30 µm2 APD measured with TE and TM modes at –15, –16 and –17 V bias voltage (dashed lines are averaged data). (e) Eye diagram of a 3 × 30 µm2 APD with a gain of 46.8 at 25 Gb/s. (f) Bit error rate vs. input optical power of an 11 × 90 µm2 APD at a gain of 28 at 10 Gbit/s[59].

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Fig. 9.  (Color online) (a) Schematic of wafer structure. (b) TEM image of the wafer[67].

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Fig. 10.  (Color online) (a) Schematic plot of the PD fabricated on the GoVS template. (b) Top-view and (c) cross-sectional view SEM images of a fabricated device[68].

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Fig. 11.  (Color online) (a) Schematic diagram of the InAs QD APD grown on GoVS substrate. (b) APD gain versus the reverse bias at various temperatures. (c) Small-signal frequency response of the 3 × 50 µm2 device for various bias voltages. (d) Measured eye diagrams at a bias voltage of –15.9 V for data rates of 2.5, 5, and 8 Gb/s[69].

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Table 1.   Properties of integrated APDs on silicon.

Ref.MaterialStructureλ (nm)Vbr (V)MIdark (nA)R (A/W)BW (GHz)GBP (GHz)BR (Gbps)
[21]Si–GeVertical + lateral p–i–n1550–61510.4819/NRZ 35
[18]Si–GeLateral p–i–n1550–11120470.2933210NRZ 40
[19]Si–GeLateral SACM1550–1211100.7827300NRZ 50
[32]Si–GeVertical SACM1550–1024201.1225296PAM4 64
[20]Si–GeLateral p–i–n1550–12.516100.9533/PAM4 64
[70]InGaAsVertical SAM1310–3020060.641.45290/
[52]InGaAs–InAlAsVertical SACM1550–222090.54///
[67]InAs–GaAs QDVertical p–i–n1300–268.50.80.005///
[71]InAs QDVertical p–i–n1550–23120.010.48///
[68]InAs–InGaAs QDVertical p–i–n1310–16/0.80.131.5//
[59]InAs QDVertical p–i–n1310–19450.10.3415240NRZ 12.5
[69]InAs QDVertical p–i–n1310–161980.10.2342.26/NRZ 8
[61]InAs QDVertical p–i–n1310–193500.010.1520585NRZ 32
DownLoad: CSV
[1]
Piels M, Bowers J E. Photodetectors for silicon photonic integrated circuits. Photodetectors. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2016, 3 doi: 10.1016/B978-1-78242-445-1.00001-4
[2]
Fédéli J M, Virot L, Vivien L, et al. High-performance waveguide-integrated germanium PIN photodiodes for optical communication applications. 2014 7th Int Silicon Ger Technol Device Meet ISTDM, 2014, 131 doi: 10.1109/ISTDM.2014.6874690
[3]
Virot L, Benedikovic D, Szelag B, et al. Integrated waveguide PIN photodiodes exploiting lateral Si/Ge/Si heterojunction. Opt Express, 2017, 25, 19487 doi: 10.1364/OE.25.019487
[4]
Sun K Y, Tzu T C, Costanzo R, et al. Ge-on-Si balanced periodic traveling-wave photodetector. 2019 IEEE Photonics Conference (IPC), 2019, 1 doi: 10.1109/IPCon.2019.8908269
[5]
Bogaert L, van Gasse K, Spuesens T, et al. Silicon photonics traveling wave photodiode with integrated star coupler for high-linearity mm-wave applications. Opt Express, 2018, 26, 34763 doi: 10.1364/OE.26.034763
[6]
Xie X J, Zhou Q G, Norberg E, et al. High-power and high-speed heterogeneously integrated waveguide-coupled photodiodes on silicon-on-insulator. J Lightwave Technol, 2016, 34, 73 doi: 10.1109/JLT.2015.2491258
[7]
Muliuk G, Zhang J, Goyvaerts J, et al. High-yield parallel transfer print integration of III-V substrate-illuminated C-band photodiodes on silicon photonic integrated circuits. Proc SPIE 10923, Silicon Photonics XIV, 2019, 1092 doi: 10.1117/12.2507373
[8]
Sun K Y, Jung D, Shang C, et al. Low dark current III–V on silicon photodiodes by heteroepitaxy. Opt Express, 2018, 26, 13605 doi: 10.1364/OE.26.013605
[9]
Sun K Y, Gao J Y, Jung D, et al. 40 Gbit/s waveguide photodiode using III–V on silicon heteroepitaxy. Opt Lett, 2020, 45, 2954 doi: 10.1364/OL.392567
[10]
Casalino M, Iodice M, Sirleto L, et al. Asymmetric MSM sub-bandgap all-silicon photodetector with low dark current. Opt Express, 2013, 21, 28072 doi: 10.1364/OE.21.028072
[11]
Cansizoglu H, Mayet A S, Ghandiparsi S, et al. Dramatically enhanced efficiency in ultra-fast silicon MSM photodiodes via light trapping structures. IEEE Photonics Technol Lett, 2019, 31, 1619 doi: 10.1109/LPT.2019.2939541
[12]
Akinwande D, Huyghebaert C, Wang C H, et al. Graphene and two-dimensional materials for silicon technology. Nature, 2019, 573, 507 doi: 10.1038/s41586-019-1573-9
[13]
Gonzalez Marin J F, Unuchek D, Watanabe K, et al. MoS2 photodetectors integrated with photonic circuits. npj 2D Mater Appl, 2019, 3, 1 doi: 10.1038/s41699-018-0083-1
[14]
Campbell J C. Recent advances in avalanche photodiodes. J Lightwave Technol, 2016, 34, 278 doi: 10.1109/JLT.2015.2453092
[15]
Benedikovic D, Virot L, Aubin G, et al. Silicon–germanium receivers for short-wave-infrared optoelectronics and communications. Nanophotonics, 2021, 10, 1059 doi: 10.1515/nanoph-2020-0547
[16]
McIntyre R J. Multiplication noise in uniform avalanche diodes. IEEE Trans Electron Devices, 1966, ED-13,164 doi: 10.1109/T-ED.1966.15651
[17]
Emmons R B. Avalanche-photodiode frequency response. J Appl Phys, 1967, 38, 3705 doi: 10.1063/1.1710199
[18]
Benedikovic D, Virot L, Aubin G, et al. 40 Gbps heterostructure germanium avalanche photo receiver on a silicon chip. Optica, 2020, 7, 775 doi: 10.1364/OPTICA.393537
[19]
Srinivasan S A, Berciano M, de Heyn P, et al. 27 GHz silicon-contacted waveguide-coupled Ge/Si avalanche photodiode. J Lightwave Technol, 2020, 38, 3044 doi: 10.1109/JLT.2020.2986923
[20]
Zhang J, Kuo B P P, Radic S. 64Gb/s PAM4 and 160Gb/s 16QAM modulation reception using a low-voltage Si-Ge waveguide-integrated APD. Opt Express, 2020, 28, 23266 doi: 10.1364/OE.396979
[21]
Zeng X G, Huang Z H, Wang B H, et al. Silicon–germanium avalanche photodiodes with direct control of electric field in charge multiplication region. Optica, 2019, 6, 772 doi: 10.1364/OPTICA.6.000772
[22]
Huang Z H, Li C, Liang D, et al. 25 Gbps low-voltage waveguide Si–Ge avalanche photodiode. Optica, 2016, 3, 793 doi: 10.1364/OPTICA.3.000793
[23]
Kang Y M, Liu H D, Morse M, et al. Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain-bandwidth product. Nat Photonics, 2009, 3, 59 doi: 10.1038/nphoton.2008.247
[24]
Huang M Y, Cai P F, Li S, et al. 56GHz waveguide Ge/Si avalanche photodiode. Optical Fiber Communication Conference (OFC), 2018
[25]
Li X W, Zheng X G, Wang S L, et al. Calculation of gain and noise with dead space for GaAs and Al xGa1– xAs avalanche photodiode. IEEE Trans Electron Devices, 2002, 49, 1112 doi: 10.1109/TED.2002.1013264
[26]
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    Received: 03 July 2021 Revised: 03 September 2021 Online: Accepted Manuscript: 08 November 2021Uncorrected proof: 23 December 2021Published: 01 February 2022

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      Article Navigation >  Journal of Semiconductors  > 2022  >  43(2): 021301
      Yuan Yuan, Bassem Tossoun, Zhihong Huang, Xiaoge Zeng, Geza Kurczveil, Marco Fiorentino, Di Liang, Raymond G. Beausoleil. Avalanche photodiodes on silicon photonics[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2022, 43(2): 021301. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/43/2/021301 Y Yuan, B Tossoun, Z H Huang, X G Zeng, G Kurczveil, M Fiorentino, D Liang, R G Beausoleil, Avalanche photodiodes on silicon photonics[J]. J. Semicond., 2022, 43(2): 021301. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/43/2/021301.Export: BibTex EndNote
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      Yuan Yuan, Bassem Tossoun, Zhihong Huang, Xiaoge Zeng, Geza Kurczveil, Marco Fiorentino, Di Liang, Raymond G. Beausoleil. Avalanche photodiodes on silicon photonics[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2022, 43(2): 021301. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/43/2/021301

      Y Yuan, B Tossoun, Z H Huang, X G Zeng, G Kurczveil, M Fiorentino, D Liang, R G Beausoleil, Avalanche photodiodes on silicon photonics[J]. J. Semicond., 2022, 43(2): 021301. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/43/2/021301.
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      Avalanche photodiodes on silicon photonics

      doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/43/2/021301

      • Hewlett Packard Labs, Hewlett Packard Enterprise, Milpitas, CA 95035, USA

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      • Author Bio:

        Yuan Yuan received the BS degree from Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China, in 2016 and a PhD degree from University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA, in 2019, both in electrical engineering. He is currently a Research Scientist with Hewlett Packard Labs of Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE), Milpitas, CA, USA. His research interests include avalanche photodiodes, single photon counting, III–V and silicon photonics. He is a member of IEEE and OSA

        Bassem Tossoun received his BS degree in Computer Engineering and MS degree in Electrical Engineering from Cal Poly San Luis Obispo in 2014. He completed his PhD in Electrical Engineering at the University of Virginia in 2019 with his research interests including silicon photonics and the design, fabrication, and characterization of optoelectronic devices. Currently, he is a Research Scientist at Hewlett Packard Labs working on quantum dot photodiodes and memristor photonics for next-generation supercomputers

        Zhihong Huang received a BS degree from Peking University, Beijing, China, and the MS and PhD degrees in electrical engineering from The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA. She is a Research Scientist with Hewlett Packard Labs, leading the development of low power optical transceivers for optical interconnects.Her research topics include avalanche photodiodes, single photon counting, optical sensors, nano-photonics, silicon photonics, as well as quantum information processing. She has authored or coauthored more than 70 journal and conference papers, and was granted more than 20 US/international patents with another dozen pending

        Xiaoge Zeng received a BSc degree in physics from the University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China, in 2008 and a PhD degree in physics from the University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CA, USA, in 2015. Since 2016, he has been a Research Scientist with the Hewlett Packard Labs, CA, USA. His research interests include silicon photonics, integrated optics, optical communications, nonlinear, and quantum optics

        Geza Kurczveil is a research scientist in HPE’s Large-Scale Integrated Photonics Lab in Santa Barbara, California. He received his PhD degree in Electrical and Computer Engineering from the University of California, Santa Barbara in 2012 working on optical buffers. His current research interests include comb lasers, silicon photonic-integrated circuits, and nano-photonics. He has authored and co-authored over 50 journal and conference papers

        Marco Fiorentino received a PhD degree in physics from the University of Naples, Naples, Italy, in 2000. His doctoral work focused on quantum optics. He is a Research Scientist at the Large-Scale Integrated Photonics Lab, Hewlett Packard Enterprise Labs, Milpitas, CA, USA. Before working with the HP/HPE Labs, in 2005, he was with Northwestern University, the University of Rome, and MIT. In the past, he has worked on optics, high-precision measurements, and optical communications

        Di Liang is currently a Distinguished Technologist and Research Manager at Hewlett Packard Labs of Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE). His research interests include III–V and silicon photonics and heterogeneous material integration. He has authored and co-authored over 240 journal and conference papers, 7 book chapters, and was granted by 44 patents with another 55+ pending. He is a Fellow of OSA, a senior member of IEEE, and a member of SPIE

        Raymond G. Beausoleil received the B.S. degree from Caltech, Pasadena, CA, USA, in 1980, and a PhD degree from Stanford University, Stanford, CA, in 1986, both in physics. He is currently a Senior Fellow and Senior Vice President at Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE), San Jose, CA, where he is the Director of the Large-Scale Integrated Photonics Lab in Hewlett Packard Labs. Prior to HPE, his research was focused on high-power all- solid-state laser and nonlinear optical systems, as well as numerical algorithms for computer firmware (leading to the navigation algorithms for the optical mouse). At Hewlett Packard Labs, he performs basic and applied research in microscale and nanoscale classical and quantum optics for information processing technologies. He is an Adjunct Professor of Applied Physics at Stanford University, a Fellow of the American Physical Society and the Optical Society of America, and the recipient of the 2016 APS Distinguished Lectureship on the Applications of Physics

      • Corresponding author: di.liang@hpe.com
      • Received Date: 2021-07-03
      • Revised Date: 2021-09-03
      • Published Date: 2022-02-10

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