J. Semicond. > 2020, Volume 41 > Issue 5 > 051204, doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/41/5/051204
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REVIEWS

Perovskite semiconductors for direct X-ray detection and imaging

Yirong Su‡, Wenbo Ma‡ and Yang (Michael) Yang

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 Corresponding author: Yang (Michael) Yang, yangyang15@zju.edu.cn

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Abstract: Halide perovskites have emerged as the next generation of optoelectronic materials and their remarkable performances have been attractive in the fields of solar cells, light-emitting diodes, photodetectors, etc. In addition, halide perovskites have been reported as an attractive new class of X-ray direct detecting materials recently, owning to the strong X-ray stopping capacity, excellent carrier transport, high sensitivity, and cost-effective manufacturing. Meanwhile, perovskite based direct X-ray imagers have been successfully demonstrated as well. In this review article, we firstly introduced some fundamental principles of direct X-ray detection and imaging, and summarized the advances of perovskite materials for these purposes and finally put forward some needful and feasible directions.

Key words: halide perovskites, X-ray detection, optoelectronic materials



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Fig. 1.  (Color online) (a) Spectrum region of X-ray to wavelength and photon energy. (b) Thomson scattering from an atom. An X-ray with a wave vector k scatters from an atom to the direction specified by k’. The scattering is assumed to be elastic. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [6]. (c) Compton scattering. A photon with energy $ {\varepsilon}=\hbar ck $ and momentum $\hbar {k}$ scatters from an electron at rest with energy mc2. The electron recoils with a momentum $\hbar {q'} = \hbar \left( {{k} - {k'}} \right)$. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [6]. (d) Schematic diagram of photoelectric absorption process. An X-ray photon is absorbed and an electron ejected from the atom. The hole created in the inner shell (k) can be filled by Fluorescent X-ray emission. Electrons in an outer shell fill the hole, creating a photon. In this diagram the outer electron comes either from the L or M shell. In the former case the fluorescent radiation is referred to as the Kα line, and in the latter as Kβ line.

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Fig. 2.  (Color online) (a) Working Principle of ion chamber. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [22]. (b) Semiconductor X-ray detectors’ two types of work modes: current mode and voltage mode. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [23]. (c) The linear absorption coefficients of different kinds of perovskite and conventional X-ray detectors. (d) Images of a piece of MAPbI3 single crystal. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [52]. (e) Images of perovskite single crystals of MAPbBr3 (left top), c-MAPbI3 (right top), Cs2AgBiBr6 (left bottom) and (NH3)4Bi2I9 (right bottom). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [16–18, 53]. (f) Schematic representation of the ITC apparatus in which the crystallization vial is immersed within a heating bath. The solution is heated from room temperature and kept at an elevated temperature (80 °C for MAPbBr3 and 110 °C for MAPbI3) to initiate the crystallization. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [54]. (g) Schematic of layer stacking of the MAPbI3-based PIN photodiode. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [20]. (h) Illustration of an all-solution-processed digital X-ray detector. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [21]. (i) Device stack of the MAPbI3-wafer-based X-ray detector. Inset: Free-standing MAPbI3 wafer (thickness: 1 mm). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [55]. (j) Preparation scheme for a thick CsPbBr3 film using the four-step hot-pressing method. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [56].

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Fig. 3.  (Color online) (a) X-ray image of resolution test chart. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [42]. (b) An edge X-ray image used for calculation of MTF. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [76]. (c) A simplified schematic diagram of the cross section of a single pixel with a TFT. The charges generated by the absorption of X-rays drift towards their respective electrodes. The TFT is normally off and is turned on when the gate G1 is addressed. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [11]. (d) Idealized MTF and MTF due to trapping. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [25].

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Fig. 4.  (Color online) (a) Left: Anrad’s mammographic FPXI (AXS-2430) is used in mammography markets. The field of view is 24 × 30 cm2 and the FPXI have a pixel pitch of 85 μm. Right: an X-ray image of a hand from AXS-2430. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [11]. (b) Photograph (left) and corresponding X-ray image (right) of a leaf, obtained with the photoconductor in Ref. [20]. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [20]. (c) Left: image of spin-cast PI-MAPbI3 on an a-Si:H TFT backplane. The inset in the left shows a single-pixel structure of TFT (scale bar 30 μm). Right: A hand X-ray image obtained from this MAPbI3 FPXI. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [21]. (d) Left: The fabricated multi-pixel wafer-based Cs2AgBiBr6 polycrystalline detector. Right top: schematic illustration of the imaging process. Right bottom: X-ray image and optical image of ‘HUST’ symbol. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [18]. (e) Photograph of Si-integrated MAPbBr3 single crystal with a 10 g weight attached to the MAPbBr3 crystal. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [19]. (f) Left: schematic illustration of X-ray imaging with Si-integrated MAPbBr3 single crystal detectors. Right: photo (top) and X-ray image (bottom) of an ‘N’ copper logo. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [19]. (g) Top: photo of the PIN array. Bottom: object photo (left) and X-ray image (right) for 100 keV energy. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [59].

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Table 1.   Performances and parameters of part of conventional and perovskite X-ray direct detectors. In “status” column, A is amorphous, S is single-crystal and P is polycrystalline.

MaterialLinear absorption coefficients to
50 keV (cm−1)		W± (eV)μτ (cm2 V−1)F (V/cm)Sensitivity (μC/(Gy·cm2))Lowest detectable dose rate (nGyair/s)Status (A, P or S)Ref.
μeτeμhτh
Si1.0223.62> 1~ 10.58< 8300S[30-32, 71]
CZT60.63~ 4.610−3 – 10−210−50.1−131850S[32, 34, 72, 73]
a-Se3.864453 × 10−7−
10−5		10−6–
6 × 10−5		> 10420−A[11, 21, 57]
MAPbBr319.416.031.2 × 10−20.580500S[16]
MAPbBr3(Si)19.416.031.39 × 10−4~ 352.1 × 104< 100S[19]
MAPbBr3(PIN)19.416.03—1502.36 × 104−S[59]
MAPbI3(Cuboid)40.61~ 4.41.1 × 10−410968.9−S[53]
MAPbI3(GA alloyed)< 40.61~ 4.51.25 × 10−2~ 422.3 × 10416.9S[60]
CsPbBr3(QDs)35.07~ 5.9—10001450−S[62]
CsPbBr3(Rb doped)35.07~ 5.97.2 × 10−4~ 2008.1 × 103−S[63]
CsPbI3(1D)57.06~ 6.83.63 × 10−341.72.37 × 103219S[64]
Cs2AgBiBr639.085.611.21 × 10−3, 6.3 × 10−3, 5.51 × 10−3, 1.94 × 10−3, —, 5.95 × 10−333, 250, 5000, 227, 500, 5004.2, 105, 250, 288.8, 988,1974−S/P[17, 18, 63, 66-68]
(NH4)3Bi2I946.985.471.1 × 10−2//, 4 × 10−3⊥508.2 × 103//, 803⊥55S[18]
(DMEDA)BiI5~ 405.15—494072.5−S[69]
MAPbI3(PV)40.61~ 4.42 × 10−7~ 80001.75−P[20]
MAPbI3(Flat detector)40.61~ 4.41 × 10−4~ 24103.8 × 103−P[21]
MAPbI3(Wafer)40.61~ 4.42 × 10−457002.527 × 103−P[55]
CsPbBr3(Hot-pressed)35.07~ 61.32 × 10−2505.5684 × 104215P[56]
MA3Bi2I9~405.391.2 × 10−3 (out-of-plane), 2.8 × 10−3 (in plane)12010 620 (out-of-plane)5.3S[74]
DownLoad: CSV
[1]
Spahn M. X-ray detectors in medical imaging. Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res A, 2013, 731, 57 doi: 10.1016/j.nima.2013.05.174
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[4]
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[5]
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[12]
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    Received: 19 March 2020 Revised: 27 April 2020 Online: Accepted Manuscript: 06 May 2020Uncorrected proof: 06 May 2020Published: 13 May 2020

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      Article Navigation >  Journal of Semiconductors  > 2020  >  41(5): 051204
      Yirong Su, Wenbo Ma, Yang (Michael) Yang. Perovskite semiconductors for direct X-ray detection and imaging[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2020, 41(5): 051204. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/41/5/051204 Y R Su, W B Ma, Y Yang, Perovskite semiconductors for direct X-ray detection and imaging[J]. J. Semicond., 2020, 41(5): 051204. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/41/5/051204.Export: BibTex EndNote
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      Yirong Su, Wenbo Ma, Yang (Michael) Yang. Perovskite semiconductors for direct X-ray detection and imaging[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2020, 41(5): 051204. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/41/5/051204

      Y R Su, W B Ma, Y Yang, Perovskite semiconductors for direct X-ray detection and imaging[J]. J. Semicond., 2020, 41(5): 051204. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/41/5/051204.
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      Perovskite semiconductors for direct X-ray detection and imaging

      doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/41/5/051204

      • State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China

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        Yirong Su ‡ These authors contributed equally to this work

        Wenbo Ma ‡ Those authors contribute equally to this work

      • Corresponding author: yangyang15@zju.edu.cn
      • Received Date: 2020-03-19
      • Revised Date: 2020-04-27
      • Published Date: 2020-05-01

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