J. Semicond. > 2023, Volume 44 > Issue 11 > 111301, doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/11/111301
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REVIEWS

Waveguide-integrated optical modulators with two-dimensional materials

Haitao Chen1, 2, 3, Hongyuan Cao1, Zejie Yu1, Weike Zhao1 and Daoxin Dai1, 4,

+ Author Affiliations

 Corresponding author: Daoxin Dai, dxdai@zju.edu.cn

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Abstract: Waveguide-integrated optical modulators are indispensable for on-chip optical interconnects and optical computing. To cope with the ever-increasing amount of data being generated and consumed, ultrafast waveguide-integrated optical modulators with low energy consumption are highly demanded. In recent years, two-dimensional (2D) materials have attracted a lot of attention and have provided tremendous opportunities for the development of high-performance waveguide-integrated optical modulators because of their extraordinary optoelectronic properties and versatile compatibility. This paper reviews the state-of-the-art waveguide-integrated optical modulators with 2D materials, providing researchers with the developing trends in the field and allowing them to identify existing challenges and promising potential solutions. First, the concept and fundamental mechanisms of optical modulation with 2D materials are summarized. Second, a review of waveguide-integrated optical modulators employing electro-optic, all-optic, and thermo-optic effects is provided. Finally, the challenges and perspectives of waveguide-integrated modulators with 2D materials are discussed.

Key words: optical modulation, two-dimensional (2D) materials, on-chip, waveguide



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Fig. 1.  (Color online) Schematic illustration of on-chip waveguide-integrated optical modulation combing various 2D materials and diverse waveguide structures; the upper part shows typical 2D materials ranging from semimetals to insulators, and the lower part shows typical waveguide structures.

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Fig. 2.  (Color online) Waveguide-integrated electro-optic modulators with non-resonant structures. (a) Schematic illustration of the first waveguide-integrated broadband electro-optic modulators based on graphene (left-hand) and the dynamic response of the device under different bias voltages (right-hand). The waveguide was optimized to carry a single mode and achieve a strong light–matter interaction in graphene[16]. (b) Schematic configuration of a waveguide-integrated electro-optic modulator based on two layers of graphene separated by a dielectric spacer (left-hand) and the measured RF response (right-hand)[52]. (c) The voltage-dependent static electro-optic response of a single graphene layer[16]. (d) The transmission spectra of the device shown in part (a) as a function of the driving voltage[16]. Figures reproduced with permission: (a, c, d) Ref. [16], © 2011 Nature Publishing Group, (b) Ref. [52], © 2016 American Chemical Society.

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Fig. 3.  (Color online) Waveguide-integrated electro-optic modulators with resonant and interferometric structures. (a) Schematic illustration of an electro-optic modulator based on graphene-integrated MRR (left-hand) and its transmission spectra at different gate voltages (right)[60]. The upper–right-hand inset of the left-hand picture shows the microscope image of the fabricated structure. (b) Optical microscope image of a graphene-based modulator with an MZI structure (left-hand) and its transmission spectra at different gate voltages (right-hand)[85]. (c) Schematic illustration of a composite SiN-WS2 waveguide with ionic liquid ([P14+] [FAP−]) cladding used as an active region for electro-optic modulators based on an MZI structure (left-hand), and the transmission spectra of the device at different gate voltages (right-hand)[77]. Figures reproduced with permission: (a) Ref. [60], © 2015 Nature Publishing Group. (b) Ref. [85], © 2018 Nature Publishing Group. (c) Ref. [77], © 2020 Nature Publishing Group.

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Fig. 4.  (Color online) Waveguide-integrated all-optical modulators with 2D materials. (a) Schematic illustration of a waveguide-integrated all-optical modulator with graphene based on the OIT effect (left-hand) and its dynamic response for different polarizations with a local modulated optical pump (right-hand)[115]. (b) Schematic structure of a waveguide-integrated all-optical modulator with graphene based on the saturable absorption effect (left-hand) and the transmission spectra of the probe light as a function of its time delay relative to the pump light (right-hand)[118]. (c) Schematic illustration of a waveguide-integrated all-optical wavelength converter based on monolayer MoSe2 (left-hand) and the measured second-harmonic generation signal from the waveguide-integrated structure compared to the free space excitation case (right-hand)[119]. Figures reproduced with permission: (a) Ref. [115], © 2014 American Chemical Society. (b) Ref. [118], © 2020 Chinese Laser Press. (c) Ref. [119], © 2017 Nature Publishing Group.

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Fig. 5.  (Color online) Waveguide-integrated thermo-optic modulators based on 2D materials. (a) Schematic illustration of an optical modulator with a resonator using a graphene nano-heater (left-hand) and the output spectra of the device operating with different heating powers (right-hand)[139]. (b) Schematic illustration of a thermo-optic modulator with an MRR structure using a graphene heater (left-hand), and the measured resonant wavelength and the Q factor when operating at different applied voltages[61]. (c) Schematic illustration of a thermo-optic modulator with an MRR using the photothermal effect in BP (left-hand) and the measured resonant wavelength for different pumping powers (right-hand)[78]. Figures reproduced with permission: (a) Ref. [139], © 2014 AIP Publishing. (b) Ref. [61], © 2015 Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) Ref. [78], © 2020 De Gruyter.

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Fig. 6.  (Color online) Hybrid 2D materials modulation with BICs. (a) Conceptional illustration of the integration scheme based on BICs (left-hand) and the effective-refractive-index wells for the TE/TM polarizations of light at 1.55 µm in the hybrid waveguide (right-hand)[103]. (b) Optical microscope image and the cross-section of the fabricated thermo-optic modulator using graphene as heater based on the BICs scheme (upper part) and the measured transmission spectral response under different voltages (lower part)[103]. (c) Optical microscope image and the cross-section of the fabricated electro-optic modulator utilizing the electro-absorption effect of graphene based on the BICs scheme (upper part) and the measured frequency response (S21) of the device (lower part)[103]. Figures reproduced with permission: Ref. [103], © 2019 Wiley-VCH.

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Fig. 7.  (Color online) Hybrid plasmonic waveguide optical modulators with 2D materials. (a) Schematic illustration of an electro-optic modulator with a plasmonic waveguide loaded with graphene (left-hand) and the output optical signal under modulated bias (right-hand)[58]. (b) Schematic illustration of an all-optical modulator based on a plasmonic waveguide loaded with graphene (left-hand) and its pump-probe response (right-hand)[59]. (c) Schematic illustration of an all-optical plasmonic modulator based on 2D semiconductors (left-hand) and the transient time response of the device (right-hand)[121]. Figures reproduced with permission: (a) Ref. [58], © 2017 Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) Ref. [59], © 2020 Nature Publishing Group. (c) Ref. [121], © 2019 Nature Publishing Group.

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Table 1.   Performance of typical on-chip waveguide-integrated electro-optic modulators.

Materialsa) Structureb) Bandwidthc)
(GHz)		 Modulation depth (dB) Insertion loss (dB) Energy consumption (fJ/bit) Drive voltage (V) Ref.d) Time
SL Gr Si waveguide 1.2 4 − − ~3.5 [16] 2011
BL Gr Si waveguide 1 6.5 4 − ~5 [83] 2012
BL Gr Si waveguide 120* 2.9* 2.5* − 8 [87] * 2012
ML Gr Si waveguide 100* 34* − 17.6* − [99] * 2014
BL Gr Si waveguide 1.8 16 3.3 − 6 [53] 2014
SL Gr Si MRR 80* 2.2* − − 6 [91] * 2014
BL Gr Si3N4 MRR 30 22 8.5 800 10 [60] 2015
SL Gr SiMRR − 6.8 18 − 4 [92] 2015
Gr/hBN Si PhC cavity 1.2 3.2 − − 2.5 [100] 2015
BL Gr a-Si waveguide 35 2 0.9 1400 25 [52] 2016
SL Gr Si waveguide 6 5 3.8 350 2.5 [101] 2016
BL Gr Si waveguide 120* π* − 452* 6* [102] * 2017
BL Gr Plasmonic waveguide − 0.13 dB/μm − − 7.5 [58] 2017
SL Gr Si MZI 5 35 − 1000 2 [85] 2018
BL Gr Dielectric waveguide 5 3 − − 6 [103] 2019
SL WS2 Si3N4 MZI 0.3 3 − − 8 [77] 2020
BL Gr Si waveguide 39 4.4 7.8 160 3.5 [86] 2021
BL Gr Si slot MRR > 40 33 5.8 − 6 [104] 2022
a) Gr, Graphene; SL, single layer; BL, bilayer; ML, multilayer; hBN, hexagonal boron nitride. b) MRR, microring resonator; PhC, photonic crystal; a-Si, amorphous silicon; MZI, Mach–Zehnder interferometer. c) Bandwidth indicates a 3 dB cutoff frequency. d) Values and references marked with * refer to the calculated results.
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Table 2.   Performance of typical on-chip waveguide-integrated all-optical modulators.

Materialsa) Structuresb) Principlec) Response
time (ps)		 Modulation depth (dB) energy consumptiond) Ref.e) Publication time
SL Gr Si waveguide OIT − 1 2 W/cm2 [115] 2014
SL Gr Si PhC cavity OIT, hot carrier effects − − 10 kW/cm2 [57] 2015
SL WS2 Si3N4 waveguide PL − > 10 − [120] 2017
SL Gr Dielectric waveguide OIT − 2.75 − [1] 2018
SL WSe2 Plasmonic waveguide third-order nonlinearity 0.29 ~0.3 650 fJ/bit [121] 2019
SL Gr Plasmonic waveguide − 2.1 − [122] 2019
SL Gr Si waveguide SA 1.65 1.1 2100 fJ/bit [118] 2020
SL Gr Plasmonic waveguide SA 0.26 3.5 35 fJ/bit [59] 2020
SL Gr Plasmonic waveguide SA 0.03−0.12* 3.5* <600* fJ/bit [123]* 2021
Gr/hBN Si slot waveguide SA 0.6* 7.3* <326* fJ/bit [124]* 2022
a) Gr, Graphene; SL, single layer; hBN, hexagonal boron nitride. b) PhC, photonic crystal. c) OIT, optically induced transparency; PL, photoluminescence; SA, saturable absorption. d) The unit W/cm2 refers to the power density of the pumped light. e) Values and references marked with * refer to the calculated results.
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Table 3.   Performance of typical on-chip waveguide-integrated thermo-optic modulators.

Materialsa) Scheme Structuresb) Rise/fall
time (μs) c)		 Tuning efficiency
(nm/mW)		 Ref. Time
SL Gr Electrothermal effect Si MZI 20/20 0.0636 [139] 2014
SL Gr Electrothermal effect Si MRR 0.75/0.8 0.104 [61] 2015
SL Gr Electrothermal effect Si MDR 12.8/8.8 1.67 [134] 2016
SL Gr Electrothermal effect ChG PhC cavity 14/− 10 [79] 2017
SL Gr Electrothermal effect Si PhC 0.75/0.525 1.07 [135] 2017
SL Gr Photothermal effect Si3N4 MRR 0.556/1.952 0.0079 [136] 2017
SL Gr Electrothermal effect Si PCNC 2.44/3.23 1.5 [62] 2017
BP film Photothermal effect Si MRR 0.479/0.113 0.0469 [78] 2020
b-AsP film Electrothermal effect Si MZI 30/20 0.74 [137] 2020
PtSe2 film photothermal effect Si MRR 304/284 0.004 [140] 2020
SL Gr photothermal effect Si MRR 0.2/1.5 0.216 [141] 2021
SL Gr photothermal effect Si PCNC 3.24/5.52 0.0346 [142] 2021
SL Gr photothermal effect Si3N4 MZI 1.25/2.83 0.0385 [143] 2021
SL Gr Electrothermal effect Si RTR 1.2/3.6 0.24 [144] 2022
MoTe2 film photothermal effect Si MDR 1.5/3.3 0.1584 [138] 2023
a) Gr, Graphene; SL, single layer; BP, black phosphorus; b-AsP, black arsenic-phosphorus; b) MZI, Mach–Zehnder interferometer; MRR, microring resonator; MDR, microdisk resonator; ChG, chalcogenide glass; PhC, photonic crystal; PCNC, photonic crystal nanobeam cavity; RTR, racetrack-type resonator. c) The rise/full time follows the 10%−90% rule.
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    Received: 18 April 2023 Revised: 05 June 2023 Online: Accepted Manuscript: 28 August 2023Uncorrected proof: 17 October 2023Corrected proof: 17 October 2023Published: 10 November 2023

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      Article Navigation >  Journal of Semiconductors  > 2023  >  44(11): 111301
      Haitao Chen, Hongyuan Cao, Zejie Yu, Weike Zhao, Daoxin Dai. Waveguide-integrated optical modulators with two-dimensional materials[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2023, 44(11): 111301. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/11/111301 H T Chen, H Y Cao, Z J Yu, W K Zhao, D X Dai. Waveguide-integrated optical modulators with two-dimensional materials[J]. J. Semicond, 2023, 44(11): 111301. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/11/111301Export: BibTex EndNote
      Citation:
      Haitao Chen, Hongyuan Cao, Zejie Yu, Weike Zhao, Daoxin Dai. Waveguide-integrated optical modulators with two-dimensional materials[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2023, 44(11): 111301. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/11/111301

      H T Chen, H Y Cao, Z J Yu, W K Zhao, D X Dai. Waveguide-integrated optical modulators with two-dimensional materials[J]. J. Semicond, 2023, 44(11): 111301. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/11/111301
      Export: BibTex EndNote
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      Waveguide-integrated optical modulators with two-dimensional materials

      doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/11/111301
      • 1.

        State Key Laboratory for Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, International Research Center for Advanced Photonics, Zhejiang University, Zijingang Campus, Hangzhou 310058, China

      • 2.

        College of Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies & Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Novel Nano-Optoelectronic Information Materials and Devices, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China

      • 3.

        Nanhu Laser Laboratory, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China

      • 4.

        Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Ningbo 315100, China

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      • Author Bio:

        Haitao Chen received his BS from the National University of Defense Technology (NUDT, China) in 2012 and PhD from Nonlinear Physics Center, the Australian National University (ANU, Australia) in 2018. He then joined the National University of Defense Technology as a lecturer. He worked at Daoxin Dai Group in Zhejiang University (ZJU, China) as a visiting postdoctral fellow during the years 2020−2022. His research interests include silicon integrated nanophotonics, nonlinear photonics, and 2D materials photonics

        Daoxin Dai received his BS from Zhejiang University (ZIU, China) in 2000 and PhD from the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH, Sweden) in 2005. Later, he joined ZJU as an assistant professor in Aug. 2007 and a full professor in 2011. He worked at Bowers Group in the University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB) as a visiting scholar during the years 2008−2011. Currently, he is the Qiushi Distinguished Professor and leading the silicon integrated nanophotonics group at Zhejiang University. He serves as the Dean of Optical Science & Engineering of Zhejiang University and the Director of MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Photonics @ ZJU

      • Corresponding author: dxdai@zju.edu.cn
      • Received Date: 2023-04-18
      • Revised Date: 2023-06-05
        • Available Online: 2023-08-28

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