J. Semicond. > 2025, Volume 46 > Issue 1 > 011602
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REVIEWS

Design strategies and insights of flexible infrared optoelectronic sensors

Yegang Liang, Wenhao Ran, Dan Kuang and Zhuoran Wang

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 Corresponding author: Zhuoran Wang, Zhuoran.wang@bit.edu.cn

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/24080044CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.24080044

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Abstract: Infrared optoelectronic sensing is the core of many critical applications such as night vision, health and medication, military, space exploration, etc. Further including mechanical flexibility as a new dimension enables novel features of adaptability and conformability, promising for developing next-generation optoelectronic sensory applications toward reduced size, weight, price, power consumption, and enhanced performance (SWaP3). However, in this emerging research frontier, challenges persist in simultaneously achieving high infrared response and good mechanical deformability in devices and integrated systems. Therefore, we perform a comprehensive review of the design strategies and insights of flexible infrared optoelectronic sensors, including the fundamentals of infrared photodetectors, selection of materials and device architectures, fabrication techniques and design strategies, and the discussion of architectural and functional integration towards applications in wearable optoelectronics and advanced image sensing. Finally, this article offers insights into future directions to practically realize the ultra-high performance and smart sensors enabled by infrared-sensitive materials, covering challenges in materials development and device micro-/nanofabrication. Benchmarks for scaling these techniques across fabrication, performance, and integration are presented, alongside perspectives on potential applications in medication and health, biomimetic vision, and neuromorphic sensory systems, etc.

Key words: flexible, infrared sensor, infrared-sensitive materials, device architectures, fabrication techniques, design strategies



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Fig. 1.  (Color online) (a) Schematic illustration of the electromagnetic spectrum ranging from visible to infrared regions. (b) Spectral response ranges of commonly used materials with different dimensions for infrared photodetection.

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Fig. 2.  (Color online) (a) Schematic illustration of a photoconductor photodetector array. (b) Schematic illustration of a photodiode photodetector array. (c) Schematic illustration of a phototransistor photodetector array.

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Fig. 3.  (Color online) (a) Schematic illustration of the fabrication process for a TiN/GeSn heterojunction photodetector, and (b) corresponding optical photograph[45]. (c) Schematic illustration of epitaxial AlAs and InxAl1−xAs arrays directly grown on a GaAs substrate, and (d) corresponding SEM cross-sectional image[46].

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Fig. 4.  (Color online) (a) Schematic illustration of an infrared photodetector based on UCNPs and BHJ, with corresponding mechanism diagram. (b) Normalized absorbance spectra of DPPTT−Tin solution, resulting film, and UCNP upconversion fluorescence spectrum[57]. (c) Chemical structures of two narrow bandgap semiconductors, PBTT and PBTB. (d) and (e) Absorption spectra of PBTT and PBTB in solution and as fabricated films, respectively[58].

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Fig. 5.  (Color online) (a) Schematic illustration of various 2D TMDs and end-functionalized polymers. (b) Absorbance spectra for a range of two-dimensional materials. (c) Schematic and optical photographs of a photodetector array composed of MoSe2 films exfoliated by PS−NH2, scale bars: (ⅰ) 6 mm; (ⅱ) 500 mm. (d) Schematic illustration of a flexible infrared detector using MoSe2−PS−NH2 composite films and its film morphologies, scale bars: (ⅲ and ⅳ) 500 nm. (e) Schematic illustration of a flexible infrared detector using MoSe2/MoS2−PS−NH2 composite films and its EDS mappings, the scale bar, 2 mm[84].

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Fig. 6.  (Color online) (a) Schematic illustration of the PbS quantum dot photodiode structure accompanied by its cross-sectional SEM image, and (b) the corresponding energy level diagram. (c) Schematic of the integration of PbS quantum dots with polyimide[88]. (d) Absorption spectra of quantum dot solutions with and without polyimide after 24-h storage. The inset is the optical photograph of quantum dot solutions; the left without PI, and the right with PI[89]. (e) Schematic illustration of a device utilizing CQDs for the infrared-sensitive layer. (f) Schematic of mask imaging under infrared illumination[90].

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Fig. 7.  (Color online) (a) Schematic illustration of one-dimensional polymer nanowires with donor−acceptor (D−A) core-shell heterojunction structure[92]. (b) Schematic illustration of a Ga−In2O3 nanowire phototransistor. (c) Performance comparison of Ilight/Idark ratios with similar devices[93]. (d) Morphologies of Te nanomeshes directly grown on various substrates[94].

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Fig. 8.  (Color online) (a) Schematic illustration of the fabrication process for a flexible InAs photodetector, employing molecular beam epitaxy and epitaxial lift−off techniques. (b) Schematic diagram of the device with vertical stacking structure[47].

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Fig. 9.  (Color online) (a) Schematic illustration of the physical vapor deposition setup for depositing Sb2Te3. (b) Film morphology and composition after varying deposition times[103]. (c) SEM image of directly epitaxial Sb2Se3 films grown on mica substrates and (d) corresponding XRD spectra. (e) I−V curve comparisons for photodetectors fabricated from epitaxial and non-epitaxial Sb2Se3 films[44].

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Fig. 10.  (Color online) (a) Schematic illustration of the fabrication process for flexible electronic devices using metal−organic chemical vapor deposition. (b) Optical photograph and structural diagram of large-area MoS2 prepared on a flexible parylene-C substrate[109].

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Fig. 11.  (Color online) (a) Process diagram for the fabrication of PbS and ZnO quantum dot heterostructure via spin-coating and (b) schematic illustration of the completed device. (c) Absorption spectra of PbS, ZnO, and PbS/ZnO films. (d) I−V curves of the PbS/ZnO quantum dot heterojunction photodetector under various light intensities[112]. (e) Process diagram for fabricating flexible NIR photodetectors using all-template printing. (f) I−V curves at different radii of curvature[114].

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Fig. 12.  (Color online) (a) Chemical structure diagrams of YZ and YZ1 and (b) PCE-10. (c) Absorption spectra of YZ, YZ1, and PCE-10 films. (d) Energy level and structural diagrams of the corresponding photodiode[118]. (e) Mu−tau product for spray-coated FAPbI3 and PEA2FA3Pb4I13 films. (f) Charge distribution across the PEA2FA3Pb4I13 film at different wavelengths, modeled from diffusion lengths and absorption spectra. (g) Normalized external quantum efficiency responses of perovskite photodetectors with varying halide compositions[119].

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Fig. 13.  (Color online) (a) Schematic illustration of the device structure and working mechanism for a SWCNT/graphene and MoS2 dual heterojunction and (b) corresponding optical photograph. (c) Schematic of the fabrication process for the SWCNT/graphene and MoS2 dual heterojunction photodetector[125].

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Fig. 14.  (Color online) Schematic illustrations of the device on a stretchable substrate in (a) bent and (b) stretched configurations[130]. (c) Schematic of the electrode fabrication process and flexible photodetector using direct writing with a pencil and Chinese brush[135].

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Fig. 15.  (Color online) Schematic illustration of a 3D integration strategy for (a) integrated sensor system[156] and (b) multilayer two-dimensional material integration[157]. (c) Schematic illustration of a multifunctional integration strategy for full-color recognition[162].

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Fig. 16.  (Color online) (a) Schematic illustration of a flexible photodetector for detecting PPG signals on the wrist[167]. (b) Schematic illustration of a NIR photodetector designed for remote health monitoring. (c) Schematic illustration of a photodetector array for NIR biomimetic curved imaging[93].

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Fig. 17.  (Color online) Schematic illustrations of curved photodetectors fabricated using various strategies (a) ultrathin substrate design[150], (b) origami/kirigami design, scale bar: 1 mm[175], (c) island−bridge structure[176], (d) fractal web structure[177], and (e) in situ growth of nanowires[178].

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Table 1.   Summary of the characteristics of various flexible infrared photodetectors.

Materials Materials
type		 Configurations Wavelength range (nm) Operating temperature Detectivity (Jones) Responsivity Refs.
TiN/GeSn Bulk Photodiode 1000−2530 / 8 × 108 218 mA/W [45]
Sb0.405Te0.595 Bulk Photoconductor 405−4500 27−127 °C 6.435 × 108 588 A/W [103]
Sb Bulk Photoconductor 405−1064 Room temperature / 21.8 µA/W [43]
GaAs Bulk Photoconductor 800−1700 20−55 °C / ~1 A/W [42]
Sb2Se3 Bulk Photoconductor 525−940 Room temperature 8.58 × 1010 155 mA/W [44]
Te Bulk Photoconductor 10 800 Room temperature 8.63 × 107 60.03 mA/W [190]
SnS2 Bulk Photoconductor 400−980 / / 44.5 mA/W [101]
D18:BTP-4F Organic Photodiode 400−900 / 6.45 × 1012 206 mA/W [191]
YZ&TZ1 Organic Photodiode 300−1050 / 9.24 × 1013 0.27 A/W [118]
Graphene/C60 Organic Photoconductor 360−808 Room temperature / / [192]
SWCNT/GdIG/Gr/
GdIG/MoS2		 Organic Photoconductor 400−1500 Room temperature 4.504 × 1012 109.311 A/W [125]
Cs0.05MA0.45FA0.5
Sn0.5Pb0.5I3		 Organic Photodiode 350−1000 / 1.6 × 109 0.2 A/W [193]
SnS1.26Se0.76 2D Photoconductor 375−808 Room temperature / 120 mA/W [74]
Te 2D Photoconductor 500−1342 / 2.489 × 10–4 3.325 A/W [141]
MoTe2 2D Photoconductor 380−1100 / / 10.4 µA/W [194]
SnTe 2D Photoconductor 980 Room temperature 3.89 × 108 698 mA/W [75]
CNTs/MoS2 2D Photoconductor 400−1500 Room temperature 4.504 × 1012 109.311 A/W [125]
PdSe2 2D Photoconductor 365−2200 / / 37.6 mA/W [195]
a-SiGe 1D Photodiode 320−1000 / / 140 mA/W [196]
Bi2Se2S 1D Phototransistor 915−1550 Room temperature 3.1 × 1010 2.9 A/W [93]
SnSnS3 1D Photoconductor 250−1064 / 3.0 × 1010 154.3 A/W [197]
Te 1D Phototransistor 520−1550 Room temperature / 23.3 A/W [94]
NbS3 1D Photoconductor 375−118 800 / 17.6 × 105 6.90 V/W [198]
PbS/CdS 0D Photodiode 1360−1400 Room temperature 4.0 × 1012 612 A/W [199]
PbS 0D Photoconductor 1000 / 2.02 × 109 2.1 A/W [200]
PbS 0D Photodiode 1300 / ~1013 / [89]
CsPbBr3/PbSe 0D Photoconductor 365−1854 / ~1012 / [111]
PbS 0D Photodiode 390−1100 / 1.01 × 1012 0.38 A/W [88]
PbS 0D Photodiode 400−1600 / 6.4 × 1012 >60 A/W [90]
DownLoad: CSV
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    Received: 28 July 2024 Revised: 20 September 2024 Online: Accepted Manuscript: 10 October 2024Uncorrected proof: 03 December 2024Published: 15 January 2025

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      Article Navigation >  Journal of Semiconductors  > 2025  >  46(1): 011602
      Yegang Liang, Wenhao Ran, Dan Kuang, Zhuoran Wang. Design strategies and insights of flexible infrared optoelectronic sensors[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2025, 46(1): 011602. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/24080044 ****Y G Liang, W H Ran, D Kuang, and Z R Wang, Design strategies and insights of flexible infrared optoelectronic sensors[J]. J. Semicond., 2025, 46(1), 011602 doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/24080044
      Citation:
      Yegang Liang, Wenhao Ran, Dan Kuang, Zhuoran Wang. Design strategies and insights of flexible infrared optoelectronic sensors[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2025, 46(1): 011602. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/24080044 ****
      Y G Liang, W H Ran, D Kuang, and Z R Wang, Design strategies and insights of flexible infrared optoelectronic sensors[J]. J. Semicond., 2025, 46(1), 011602 doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/24080044
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      Design strategies and insights of flexible infrared optoelectronic sensors

      DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/24080044
      CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.24080044

      • School of Integrated Circuits and Electronics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China

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      • Yegang Liang received his bachelor's degree in 2020 and his master's degree in 2023, both from Guangxi University. He is currently a doctoral student at Beijing Institute of Technology, focusing on the research of flexible and curved infrared sensors
      • Wenhao Ran received his PhD in the Institute of Semiconductors, Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2022. He is currently a postdoctoral researcher at the School of Integrated Circuits and Electronics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing. His current research focuses on flexible biomimic vision system with in-memory sensing and computing
      • Dan Kuang received her doctoral degree from Beijing institute of technology, China, in 2023. She is currently an experimentalist with school of integrated circuits and electronics, Beijing institute of technology, China. Her current research focuses on semiconductor nanomaterials and flexible devices
      • Zhuoran Wang received his PhD in the Mining and Materials Engineering from McGill University, QC, Canada in 2017. In 2019 he joined the Institute of Photonic Sciences (ICFO), Barcelona, as a postdoctoral/Marie-Curie research fellow. He is currently a professor at the School of Integrated Circuits and Electronics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing. His current research focuses on flexible optoelectronic sensors for biomimic vision
      • Corresponding author: Zhuoran.wang@bit.edu.cn
      • Received Date: 2024-07-28
      • Revised Date: 2024-09-20
        • Available Online: 2024-10-10

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