Waveguide-integrated optical modulators with two-dimensional materials

Haitao Chen; Hongyuan Cao; Zejie Yu; Weike Zhao; Daoxin Dai

doi:10.1088/1674-4926/44/11/111301

J. Semicond. > 2023, Volume 44 > Issue 11 > 111301

REVIEWS

Waveguide-integrated optical modulators with two-dimensional materials

Haitao Chen^{1, 2, 3}, Hongyuan Cao¹, Zejie Yu¹, Weike Zhao¹ and Daoxin Dai^{1, 4,}

+ Author Affiliations

1. State Key Laboratory for Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, International Research Center for Advanced Photonics, Zhejiang University, Zijingang Campus, Hangzhou 310058, China
2. College of Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies & Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Novel Nano-Optoelectronic Information Materials and Devices, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China
3. Nanhu Laser Laboratory, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China
4. Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Ningbo 315100, China

Author Bio:

Haitao Chen received his BS from the National University of Defense Technology (NUDT, China) in 2012 and PhD from Nonlinear Physics Center, the Australian National University (ANU, Australia) in 2018. He then joined the National University of Defense Technology as a lecturer. He worked at Daoxin Dai Group in Zhejiang University (ZJU, China) as a visiting postdoctral fellow during the years 2020−2022. His research interests include silicon integrated nanophotonics, nonlinear photonics, and 2D materials photonics.

Daoxin Dai received his BS from Zhejiang University (ZIU, China) in 2000 and PhD from the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH, Sweden) in 2005. Later, he joined ZJU as an assistant professor in Aug. 2007 and a full professor in 2011. He worked at Bowers Group in the University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB) as a visiting scholar during the years 2008−2011. Currently, he is the Qiushi Distinguished Professor and leading the silicon integrated nanophotonics group at Zhejiang University. He serves as the Dean of Optical Science & Engineering of Zhejiang University and the Director of MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Photonics @ ZJU.

Corresponding author: Daoxin Dai, dxdai@zju.edu.cn

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/11/111301

Abstract: Waveguide-integrated optical modulators are indispensable for on-chip optical interconnects and optical computing. To cope with the ever-increasing amount of data being generated and consumed, ultrafast waveguide-integrated optical modulators with low energy consumption are highly demanded. In recent years, two-dimensional (2D) materials have attracted a lot of attention and have provided tremendous opportunities for the development of high-performance waveguide-integrated optical modulators because of their extraordinary optoelectronic properties and versatile compatibility. This paper reviews the state-of-the-art waveguide-integrated optical modulators with 2D materials, providing researchers with the developing trends in the field and allowing them to identify existing challenges and promising potential solutions. First, the concept and fundamental mechanisms of optical modulation with 2D materials are summarized. Second, a review of waveguide-integrated optical modulators employing electro-optic, all-optic, and thermo-optic effects is provided. Finally, the challenges and perspectives of waveguide-integrated modulators with 2D materials are discussed.

Key words: optical modulation, two-dimensional (2D) materials, on-chip, waveguide

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Fig. 1. (Color online) Schematic illustration of on-chip waveguide-integrated optical modulation combing various 2D materials and diverse waveguide structures; the upper part shows typical 2D materials ranging from semimetals to insulators, and the lower part shows typical waveguide structures.

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Fig. 2. (Color online) Waveguide-integrated electro-optic modulators with non-resonant structures. (a) Schematic illustration of the first waveguide-integrated broadband electro-optic modulators based on graphene (left-hand) and the dynamic response of the device under different bias voltages (right-hand). The waveguide was optimized to carry a single mode and achieve a strong light–matter interaction in graphene^[16]. (b) Schematic configuration of a waveguide-integrated electro-optic modulator based on two layers of graphene separated by a dielectric spacer (left-hand) and the measured RF response (right-hand)^[52]. (c) The voltage-dependent static electro-optic response of a single graphene layer^[16]. (d) The transmission spectra of the device shown in part (a) as a function of the driving voltage^[16]. Figures reproduced with permission: (a, c, d) Ref. [16], © 2011 Nature Publishing Group, (b) Ref. [52], © 2016 American Chemical Society.

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Fig. 3. (Color online) Waveguide-integrated electro-optic modulators with resonant and interferometric structures. (a) Schematic illustration of an electro-optic modulator based on graphene-integrated MRR (left-hand) and its transmission spectra at different gate voltages (right)^[60]. The upper–right-hand inset of the left-hand picture shows the microscope image of the fabricated structure. (b) Optical microscope image of a graphene-based modulator with an MZI structure (left-hand) and its transmission spectra at different gate voltages (right-hand)^[85]. (c) Schematic illustration of a composite SiN-WS₂ waveguide with ionic liquid ([P14+] [FAP−]) cladding used as an active region for electro-optic modulators based on an MZI structure (left-hand), and the transmission spectra of the device at different gate voltages (right-hand)^[77]. Figures reproduced with permission: (a) Ref. [60], © 2015 Nature Publishing Group. (b) Ref. [85], © 2018 Nature Publishing Group. (c) Ref. [77], © 2020 Nature Publishing Group.

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Fig. 4. (Color online) Waveguide-integrated all-optical modulators with 2D materials. (a) Schematic illustration of a waveguide-integrated all-optical modulator with graphene based on the OIT effect (left-hand) and its dynamic response for different polarizations with a local modulated optical pump (right-hand)^[115]. (b) Schematic structure of a waveguide-integrated all-optical modulator with graphene based on the saturable absorption effect (left-hand) and the transmission spectra of the probe light as a function of its time delay relative to the pump light (right-hand)^[118]. (c) Schematic illustration of a waveguide-integrated all-optical wavelength converter based on monolayer MoSe₂ (left-hand) and the measured second-harmonic generation signal from the waveguide-integrated structure compared to the free space excitation case (right-hand)^[119]. Figures reproduced with permission: (a) Ref. [115], © 2014 American Chemical Society. (b) Ref. [118], © 2020 Chinese Laser Press. (c) Ref. [119], © 2017 Nature Publishing Group.

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Fig. 5. (Color online) Waveguide-integrated thermo-optic modulators based on 2D materials. (a) Schematic illustration of an optical modulator with a resonator using a graphene nano-heater (left-hand) and the output spectra of the device operating with different heating powers (right-hand)^[139]. (b) Schematic illustration of a thermo-optic modulator with an MRR structure using a graphene heater (left-hand), and the measured resonant wavelength and the Q factor when operating at different applied voltages^[61]. (c) Schematic illustration of a thermo-optic modulator with an MRR using the photothermal effect in BP (left-hand) and the measured resonant wavelength for different pumping powers (right-hand)^[78]. Figures reproduced with permission: (a) Ref. [139], © 2014 AIP Publishing. (b) Ref. [61], © 2015 Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) Ref. [78], © 2020 De Gruyter.

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Fig. 6. (Color online) Hybrid 2D materials modulation with BICs. (a) Conceptional illustration of the integration scheme based on BICs (left-hand) and the effective-refractive-index wells for the TE/TM polarizations of light at 1.55 µm in the hybrid waveguide (right-hand)^[103]. (b) Optical microscope image and the cross-section of the fabricated thermo-optic modulator using graphene as heater based on the BICs scheme (upper part) and the measured transmission spectral response under different voltages (lower part)^[103]. (c) Optical microscope image and the cross-section of the fabricated electro-optic modulator utilizing the electro-absorption effect of graphene based on the BICs scheme (upper part) and the measured frequency response (S₂₁) of the device (lower part)^[103]. Figures reproduced with permission: Ref. [103], © 2019 Wiley-VCH.

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Fig. 7. (Color online) Hybrid plasmonic waveguide optical modulators with 2D materials. (a) Schematic illustration of an electro-optic modulator with a plasmonic waveguide loaded with graphene (left-hand) and the output optical signal under modulated bias (right-hand)^[58]. (b) Schematic illustration of an all-optical modulator based on a plasmonic waveguide loaded with graphene (left-hand) and its pump-probe response (right-hand)^[59]. (c) Schematic illustration of an all-optical plasmonic modulator based on 2D semiconductors (left-hand) and the transient time response of the device (right-hand)^[121]. Figures reproduced with permission: (a) Ref. [58], © 2017 Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) Ref. [59], © 2020 Nature Publishing Group. (c) Ref. [121], © 2019 Nature Publishing Group.

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Table 1. Performance of typical on-chip waveguide-integrated electro-optic modulators.

Materials^a)	Structure^b)	Bandwidth^c) (GHz)	Modulation depth (dB)	Insertion loss (dB)	Energy consumption (fJ/bit)	Drive voltage (V)	Ref.^d)	Time
SL Gr	Si waveguide	1.2	4	−	−	~3.5	[16]	2011
BL Gr	Si waveguide	1	6.5	4	−	~5	[83]	2012
BL Gr	Si waveguide	120*	2.9*	2.5*	−	8	[87] *	2012
ML Gr	Si waveguide	100*	34*	−	17.6*	−	[99] *	2014
BL Gr	Si waveguide	1.8	16	3.3	−	6	[53]	2014
SL Gr	Si MRR	80*	2.2*	−	−	6	[91] *	2014
BL Gr	Si₃N₄ MRR	30	22	8.5	800	10	[60]	2015
SL Gr	SiMRR	−	6.8	18	−	4	[92]	2015
Gr/hBN	Si PhC cavity	1.2	3.2	−	−	2.5	[100]	2015
BL Gr	a-Si waveguide	35	2	0.9	1400	25	[52]	2016
SL Gr	Si waveguide	6	5	3.8	350	2.5	[101]	2016
BL Gr	Si waveguide	120*	π*	−	452*	6*	[102] *	2017
BL Gr	Plasmonic waveguide	−	0.13 dB/μm	−	−	7.5	[58]	2017
SL Gr	Si MZI	5	35	−	1000	2	[85]	2018
BL Gr	Dielectric waveguide	5	3	−	−	6	[103]	2019
SL WS₂	Si₃N₄ MZI	0.3	3	−	−	8	[77]	2020
BL Gr	Si waveguide	39	4.4	7.8	160	3.5	[86]	2021
BL Gr	Si slot MRR	> 40	33	5.8	−	6	[104]	2022
^a) Gr, Graphene; SL, single layer; BL, bilayer; ML, multilayer; hBN, hexagonal boron nitride. ^b) MRR, microring resonator; PhC, photonic crystal; a-Si, amorphous silicon; MZI, Mach–Zehnder interferometer. ^c) Bandwidth indicates a 3 dB cutoff frequency. ^d) Values and references marked with * refer to the calculated results.

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Table 2. Performance of typical on-chip waveguide-integrated all-optical modulators.

Materials^a)	Structures^b)	Principle^c)	Response time (ps)	Modulation depth (dB)	energy consumption^d)	Ref.^e)	Publication time
SL Gr	Si waveguide	OIT	−	1	2 W/cm²	[115]	2014
SL Gr	Si PhC cavity	OIT, hot carrier effects	−	−	10 kW/cm²	[57]	2015
SL WS₂	Si₃N₄ waveguide	PL	−	> 10	−	[120]	2017
SL Gr	Dielectric waveguide	OIT	−	2.75	−	[1]	2018
SL WSe₂	Plasmonic waveguide	third-order nonlinearity	0.29	~0.3	650 fJ/bit	[121]	2019
SL Gr	Plasmonic waveguide		−	2.1	−	[122]	2019
SL Gr	Si waveguide	SA	1.65	1.1	2100 fJ/bit	[118]	2020
SL Gr	Plasmonic waveguide	SA	0.26	3.5	35 fJ/bit	[59]	2020
SL Gr	Plasmonic waveguide	SA	0.03−0.12*	3.5*	<600* fJ/bit	[123]*	2021
Gr/hBN	Si slot waveguide	SA	0.6*	7.3*	<326* fJ/bit	[124]*	2022
^a) Gr, Graphene; SL, single layer; hBN, hexagonal boron nitride. ^b) PhC, photonic crystal. ^c) OIT, optically induced transparency; PL, photoluminescence; SA, saturable absorption. ^d) The unit W/cm² refers to the power density of the pumped light. ^e) Values and references marked with * refer to the calculated results.

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Table 3. Performance of typical on-chip waveguide-integrated thermo-optic modulators.

Materials^a)	Scheme	Structures^b)	Rise/fall time (μs)^c)	Tuning efficiency (nm/mW)	Ref.	Time
SL Gr	Electrothermal effect	Si MZI	20/20	0.0636	[139]	2014
SL Gr	Electrothermal effect	Si MRR	0.75/0.8	0.104	[61]	2015
SL Gr	Electrothermal effect	Si MDR	12.8/8.8	1.67	[134]	2016
SL Gr	Electrothermal effect	ChG PhC cavity	14/−	10	[79]	2017
SL Gr	Electrothermal effect	Si PhC	0.75/0.525	1.07	[135]	2017
SL Gr	Photothermal effect	Si₃N₄ MRR	0.556/1.952	0.0079	[136]	2017
SL Gr	Electrothermal effect	Si PCNC	2.44/3.23	1.5	[62]	2017
BP film	Photothermal effect	Si MRR	0.479/0.113	0.0469	[78]	2020
b-AsP film	Electrothermal effect	Si MZI	30/20	0.74	[137]	2020
PtSe₂ film	photothermal effect	Si MRR	304/284	0.004	[140]	2020
SL Gr	photothermal effect	Si MRR	0.2/1.5	0.216	[141]	2021
SL Gr	photothermal effect	Si PCNC	3.24/5.52	0.0346	[142]	2021
SL Gr	photothermal effect	Si₃N₄ MZI	1.25/2.83	0.0385	[143]	2021
SL Gr	Electrothermal effect	Si RTR	1.2/3.6	0.24	[144]	2022
MoTe₂ film	photothermal effect	Si MDR	1.5/3.3	0.1584	[138]	2023
^a) Gr, Graphene; SL, single layer; BP, black phosphorus; b-AsP, black arsenic-phosphorus; ^b) MZI, Mach–Zehnder interferometer; MRR, microring resonator; MDR, microdisk resonator; ChG, chalcogenide glass; PhC, photonic crystal; PCNC, photonic crystal nanobeam cavity; RTR, racetrack-type resonator. ^c) The rise/full time follows the 10%−90% rule.

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Received: 18 April 2023 Revised: 05 June 2023 Online: Accepted Manuscript: 28 August 2023Uncorrected proof: 17 October 2023Corrected proof: 17 October 2023Published: 10 November 2023

Article Navigation > Journal of Semiconductors > 2023 > 44(11): 111301

Haitao Chen, Hongyuan Cao, Zejie Yu, Weike Zhao, Daoxin Dai. Waveguide-integrated optical modulators with two-dimensional materials[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2023, 44(11): 111301. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/11/111301 ****H T Chen, H Y Cao, Z J Yu, W K Zhao, D X Dai. Waveguide-integrated optical modulators with two-dimensional materials[J]. J. Semicond, 2023, 44(11): 111301. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/11/111301

Citation:

Haitao Chen, Hongyuan Cao, Zejie Yu, Weike Zhao, Daoxin Dai. Waveguide-integrated optical modulators with two-dimensional materials[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2023, 44(11): 111301. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/11/111301 ****

H T Chen, H Y Cao, Z J Yu, W K Zhao, D X Dai. Waveguide-integrated optical modulators with two-dimensional materials[J]. J. Semicond, 2023, 44(11): 111301. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/11/111301

Citation:

H T Chen, H Y Cao, Z J Yu, W K Zhao, D X Dai. Waveguide-integrated optical modulators with two-dimensional materials[J]. J. Semicond, 2023, 44(11): 111301. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/11/111301

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Waveguide-integrated optical modulators with two-dimensional materials

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/11/111301

Haitao Chen^{1, 2, 3},
Hongyuan Cao¹,
Zejie Yu¹,
Weike Zhao¹,
Daoxin Dai^{1, 4,}

1.
State Key Laboratory for Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, International Research Center for Advanced Photonics, Zhejiang University, Zijingang Campus, Hangzhou 310058, China
2.
College of Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies & Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Novel Nano-Optoelectronic Information Materials and Devices, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China
3.
Nanhu Laser Laboratory, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China
4.
Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Ningbo 315100, China

More Information

Haitao Chen：received his BS from the National University of Defense Technology (NUDT, China) in 2012 and PhD from Nonlinear Physics Center, the Australian National University (ANU, Australia) in 2018. He then joined the National University of Defense Technology as a lecturer. He worked at Daoxin Dai Group in Zhejiang University (ZJU, China) as a visiting postdoctral fellow during the years 2020−2022. His research interests include silicon integrated nanophotonics, nonlinear photonics, and 2D materials photonics
Daoxin Dai：received his BS from Zhejiang University (ZIU, China) in 2000 and PhD from the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH, Sweden) in 2005. Later, he joined ZJU as an assistant professor in Aug. 2007 and a full professor in 2011. He worked at Bowers Group in the University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB) as a visiting scholar during the years 2008−2011. Currently, he is the Qiushi Distinguished Professor and leading the silicon integrated nanophotonics group at Zhejiang University. He serves as the Dean of Optical Science & Engineering of Zhejiang University and the Director of MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Photonics @ ZJU
Corresponding author: dxdai@zju.edu.cn
Received Date: 2023-04-18
Revised Date: 2023-06-05

Available Online: 2023-08-28

Abstract

Abstract

Waveguide-integrated optical modulators are indispensable for on-chip optical interconnects and optical computing. To cope with the ever-increasing amount of data being generated and consumed, ultrafast waveguide-integrated optical modulators with low energy consumption are highly demanded. In recent years, two-dimensional (2D) materials have attracted a lot of attention and have provided tremendous opportunities for the development of high-performance waveguide-integrated optical modulators because of their extraordinary optoelectronic properties and versatile compatibility. This paper reviews the state-of-the-art waveguide-integrated optical modulators with 2D materials, providing researchers with the developing trends in the field and allowing them to identify existing challenges and promising potential solutions. First, the concept and fundamental mechanisms of optical modulation with 2D materials are summarized. Second, a review of waveguide-integrated optical modulators employing electro-optic, all-optic, and thermo-optic effects is provided. Finally, the challenges and perspectives of waveguide-integrated modulators with 2D materials are discussed.
- optical modulation,
- two-dimensional (2D) materials,
- on-chip,
- waveguide

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References(178)

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Waveguide-integrated optical modulators with two-dimensional materials

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Waveguide-integrated optical modulators with two-dimensional materials

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