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Review on three-dimensional graphene: synthesis and joint photoelectric regulation in photodetectors

Bingkun Wang1, Jinqiu Zhang1, Huijuan Wu1, Fanghao Zhu1, Shanshui Lian1, Genqiang Cao1, Hui Ma1, Xurui Hu1, , Li Zheng2, and Gang Wang1, 2,

+ Author Affiliations

 Corresponding author: Xurui Hu, huxurui@nbu.edu.cn; Li Zheng, zhengli@mail.sim.ac.cn; Gang Wang, gangwang@nbu.edu.cn

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/25010015CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.25010015

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Abstract: Graphene has garnered significant attention in photodetection due to its exceptional optical, electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties. However, the practical application of two-dimensional (2D) graphene in optoelectronic fields is limited by its weak light absorption (only 2.3%) and zero bandgap characteristics. Increasing light absorption is a critical scientific challenge for developing high-performance graphene-based photodetectors. Three-dimensional (3D) graphene comprises vertically grown stacked 2D-graphene layers and features a distinctive porous structure. Unlike 2D-graphene, 3D-graphene offers a larger specific surface area, improved electrochemical activity, and high chemical stability, making it a promising material for optoelectronic detection. Importantly, 3D-graphene has an optical microcavity structure that enhances light absorption through interaction with incoming light. This paper systematically reviews and analyzes the current research status and challenges of 3D-graphene-based photodetectors, aiming to explore feasible development paths for these devices and promote their industrial application.

Key words: 3D-graphene, growth techniques, heterojunctions, photodetectors



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Fig. 1.  (Color online) Properties and applications of 3D-graphene.

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Fig. 2.  (Color online) (a) Schematics and mechanisms for the normal and Faraday-cageassisted PECVD growth routes[67]. (b) Schematic diagrams showing the growth mechanism of the VGNPs on the SiO2/Si substrate by PACVD. The numbers (Ⅰ–Ⅵ) represent different steps corresponding to (c)−(h). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of (c) a SiO2/Si substrate (refer to Ⅰ in the schematic diagram). (d) Growth of carbon buffer layers on the substrate (refer to Ⅱ in the schematic diagram). (e) Formation of defects (refer to Ⅲ in the schematic diagram). (f) Nano-island formation from the defects (refer to Ⅳ in the schematic diagram). (g) The growth of nanographene from the nano-island (refer to Ⅴ in the schematic diagram). (h) Vertical growth of the VGNPs (refer to Ⅵ in the schematic diagram)[68].

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Fig. 3.  (Color online) Schematic illustrations of the PACVD system[69].

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Fig. 4.  (a) Surface topography of 3D-graphene. (b) SEM of 3D-graphene cross-section with different growth times[70].

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Fig. 5.  3D-graphene TEM image (a) Petal-like graphite flake with lateral facets. (b) Graphite flake originating from an Au substrate. The sides are easily observed. (c) Graphite flake with faceted edges. (d) Open from the top of the graphite flake (without faceted edges)[71].

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Fig. 6.  (Color online) (a) AFM image of 3D-graphene surface, (b) 3D stereo image[72].

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Fig. 7.  (Color online) Raman spectra of (a) single-layer graphene, (b) 3D graphene. The black line indicates the processed experimental data, the red line indicates the cumulative fit and the green line indicates the individual fitted peaks[73].

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Fig. 8.  (Color online) Infrared spectra of CNWs films: (a) transmittance, (b) absorption[75].

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Fig. 9.  (Color online) (a) Valence bands and (b) work functions of 3D-graphene on Si. (b) Work functions of N-doped 3D-graphene on Si[76].

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Fig. 10.  (Color online) (a) Schematic of SKPM characterization. Surface potentials of 3D-graphene/germanium-on-insulator (GeOI) heterojunction in (b) dark and (c) light. (d)−(j) Current maps taken in the dark at different bias voltages. (k) Corresponding I−V curves obtained by scanning the bias voltage applied to the junction (average of measurements over an area of 10 × 10 µm2)[77].

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Fig. 11.  (Color online) (a) Thickness-dependent conductivity of multilayer graphene. The inset shows the conductivity for thicknesses ranging from 3 to 100 nm. (b) Thickness-dependent mobility of multilayer graphene. The inset shows the conductivity for thicknesses ranging from 3 to 100 nm[79].

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Fig. 12.  (Color online) Energy band diagrams of PbS QDs/3D-graphene/Si before (a) equilibrium, (b) at equilibrium and (c) in the light[87].

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Fig. 13.  (Color online) (a) Schematic of the device form factor and energy band diagram of the junction region. Dark current characteristics of GNWs-Si devices under different growth times and blackbody measurements. (b) Noise current spectral density measured under ambient conditions. (c) Dark current with a sampling frequency of 1 Hz. (d) Time response of a 635 nm laser measured with an oscilloscope. (e) Current−voltage curves at different incident powers at a wavelength of 532 nm[92]. (f) Schematic diagram of the device setup. (g) I−V curves of heterojunction photodetector (HPD) (black line) and tunneling heterojunction photodetector (THPD) (blue line). 1550 nm incident optical power is 180 mW. (h) Iph (red line) and responsivity (R) (blue line) of THPD as a function of incident optical power[93].

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Fig. 14.  (Color online) (a) I−V curves of the device under different intensities of 1550 nm light irradiation. The inset shows the schematic diagram of the 3D-graphene/SOI device. (b) Time-resolved optical response of the device subjected to different intensities of the chopped light source (bias = 0.5 V). (c) and (d) Enlarged images of some of the photoresponse curves recorded at 500 Hz, illustrating the fast rise and decay times of the device[72]. (e) Optical microscope image of a single device and schematic diagram. (f) I−V curves under dark and light conditions. Ag-NPs/3D-graphene/Si heterojunction photodetector at 1550 nm. (g) Partially enlarged image of the temporal response curve at 1 kHz[96]. (h) I−V curves of the device at different wavelengths (440, 520, 780, 980, 1550 nm) for the same light intensity. (i) Decay characteristics of photocurrent amplitude at different modulation frequencies. (j) Enlarged image of the photoresponse curve of PbS QDs modified 3D-graphene/Si heterojunction at 1 kHz[87].

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Fig. 15.  (Color online) (a) I−V curves at different wavelengths for the same light intensity. (b) Rise/fall time of PD under 2200 nm wavelength illumination. (c) and (d) I−T curves for a dual-frequency optoelectronic logic gate. The insets depict the circuit diagrams of the "or" and "and" gates. (e)−(h) Imaging results of the "Panda" pattern (230 × 230 pixels) under infrared (980−2200 nm) irradiation[100].

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Fig. 16.  (Color online) (a) Schematic diagram of a photodetector based on a hybrid 3D-Gr/2D-Gr structure. (b) I−V characteristics of the photodetectors with different structures at a wavelength of 1550 nm and a light source intensity of 30 mW/cm2. (c) Partially magnified image of the 2 kHz photoresponse curve to illustrate the fall time (tf) and rise time (tr)[101]. (d) Schematic diagram of Ge-based 3D-graphene photodetector. (e) Optical response of the device to 1550 nm laser pulses at different frequencies. The response curves corresponding to 2000 Hz modulation are amplified and further analyzed for characterization (f) the rise time, tr, and (g) the fall time, tf, of the device[105]. (h) Schematic diagram of a hybrid photodetector based on a VOG/Ge heterojunction. (i) Photocurrent as a function of light intensity. (j) Individual normalization periods used to estimate response time (tr) and fall time (tf)[106].

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Fig. 17.  (Color online) Principle of Si-based monolayer graphene photoconductive detectors[117]. (a) Dark current (Idark) under an external bias (V) due to intrinsic carriers in graphene. Electrons and holes are denoted by dark and light circles, respectively. (b) Incident photons generate electron−hole pairs in the (lightly n-doped) silicon. (c) These injected carriers "dope" graphene and remain available for a certain time-scale, tr, before they recombine back into silicon. During this time, the applied bias V replaces these carriers several times by driving them through the external circuit, causing the photocurrent, Iph, as shown. (d) At the end of their lifetime, these carriers recombine back into silicon.

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Fig. 18.  (Color online) (a) Schematic of the device form factor. (b) Photoresponse current for VDS = 0.5 V and (c) VDS = 1 V. (d) Schottky barrier fitting for GNWs/n-Si. (e) Schottky potential barrier fitting for GNWs/i-Si. (f) Schottky potential barrier fitting for GNWs/p-Si[122]. (g) and (h) Photocarrier transport process of GNWs/DLC/Si photodetectors under light illumination. (i) Response time of GNWs/DLC/Si photodetectors with different DLC thicknesses[127].

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Fig. 19.  (Color online) (a) Three-dimensional schematic of the VG/ITO composite photodetector. (b) Iph of the VG/ITO photodetector at different bias voltages. (c) Photoresponsivity (|R|) versus Vbias of the VG/ITO photodetector[128]. (d) Schematic structure and working mechanism of GNWs/SnO2 device under UV light. (e) Photocurrent response of SnO2 (black line), GNWs/SnO2 (red line) and GNWs (blue line) with time. (f) Photocurrent response of GNWs/SnO2 with time at different bias voltages[130].

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Fig. 20.  (Color online) (a) Structure of transversely structured graphene/calcite phototransistor and fabricated prototype device. (b) Leakage current−leakage voltage plot for sun simulator irradiation, 1 sun = 1000 w/m2. (c) Measurement of photocurrent versus time for phototransistor at 1 V bias voltage with different powers of 633 nm laser[133]. (d) Schematic of the FAPbI3 QDs/VAGA-based NIR detector. (e) I−V characteristics of the photodetector measured under dark (grey line) and 1550 nm irradiation (red line). (f) Responsiveness and detectability concerning power density[134].

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Fig. 21.  (Color online) (a) Room temperature conductivity, Seebeck coefficient and power factor of PANI, 3D-graphene and 3D-graphene/PANI composites. (b) Carrier concentration and carrier mobility of PANI, 3D-graphene and 3D-graphene/PANI composites. (c) Resistivity of 3D-graphene/PANI composites containing 55% 3D-graphene[141]. (d) Schematic of the photothermoelectric response focused on the CV side of the composite. (e) Seebeck voltage versus temperature difference. (f) TGA plots of 0.3 CV, 3DGS-CV composites, and 3DGS in air from room temperature to 900 °C with a 5 K/min ramp rate[144].

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Fig. 22.  (Color online) (a) Transmission spectra measured at 20 and 90 °C. (b) Resistance−temperature curves of VGNWs/VO2 composite films. (c) Deposition time, TCR versus resistance of VGNWs[154]. (d) Schematic of the GNW/PDMS thermal response. (e) Response of the GNW/PDMS device under temperature-controlled IR light irradiation. This test turns the IR light on at 30 °C and off at 32 °C. (f) The current trend of GNWs/PDMS at different temperatures[155].

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Table 1.   The performance metrics, including responsivity, response time, wavelength, and detectivity for photodetectors fabricated using 3D-graphene.

Device structure Wavelength
(nm)		 Rise
time (tr)		 Fall
time (tf)		 Responsivity
(A/W)		 Detectivity
(cm∙Hz1/2∙W−1)		 Reference
GrapheneNWs/planar-Si 532 40 μs − 0.52 5.88 × 1013 92
3D-Gr/high-κ/Si 1550 168 μs 196 μs 11. 2 5.9 × 1010 93
3D-Gr/SOI 1550 212 μs 242 μs 27.4 1.37 × 1011 72
Ag-NPs/3D-Gr/Si 1550 245 μs 185 μs 65.3 1.5 × 1010 96
PbS QDs/3D-Gr/Si 1550 326 μs 337 μs 13.7 1 × 1011 87
PbS QDs/3D-Gr/Si 2200 350 μs 372 μs 52 6.8 × 1010 100
3D-Gr/2D-Gr/Ge 1550 68 μs 70 μs 1.7 3.42 × 1014 101
3D-Gr/C3N QDs/2D-Gr/Ge 1550 57 μs 62 μs 2.98 × 107 1.04 × 1013 105
GQDs/VOG/Ge 1550 51 μs 54 μs 1.06 × 106 2.11 × 1014 106
GNWs/DLC/Si 532 13 μs 36 μs 2.4 × 103 1.07 × 1011 127
VG/ITO 980 5.8 s 6 s 0.7 − 128
FAPbI3 QDs/VAGAs 1550 42 μs 45 μs 2.17 × 107 5.64 × 1015 134
CH3NH3PbIxCl3−x/GNWs 633 50 ms 290 ms 2.02 × 103 7.2 × 1010 133
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Table 2.   The performance of 3D-graphene photodetectors is compared with other photodetectors.

Detector type Response
speed		 Spectral response
range		 Quantum
efficiency		 Dark current Flexibility Cost
3D-graphene photodetectors Fast UV−IR Lower Relatively high Good Low
2D photoelectric sensors Faster Varies by material Higher Varies by material Better Higher
InGaAs photodetector Fast Near infrared High Low Difference High
HgTeCd photodetector Faster Near infrared−far Infrared High Low Difference High
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    Received: 11 January 2025 Revised: 17 February 2025 Online: Accepted Manuscript: 03 March 2025Uncorrected proof: 11 April 2025

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      Article Navigation >  Journal of Semiconductors  > 2025  > Uncorrected proof
      Bingkun Wang, Jinqiu Zhang, Huijuan Wu, Fanghao Zhu, Shanshui Lian, Genqiang Cao, Hui Ma, Xurui Hu, Li Zheng, Gang Wang. Review on three-dimensional graphene: synthesis and joint photoelectric regulation in photodetectors[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2025, In Press. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/25010015 ****B K Wang, J Q Zhang, H J Wu, F H Zhu, S S Lian, G Q Cao, H Ma, X R Hu, L Zheng, and G Wang, Review on three-dimensional graphene: synthesis and joint photoelectric regulation in photodetectors[J]. J. Semicond., 2025, 46(7), 071401 doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/25010015
      Citation:
      Bingkun Wang, Jinqiu Zhang, Huijuan Wu, Fanghao Zhu, Shanshui Lian, Genqiang Cao, Hui Ma, Xurui Hu, Li Zheng, Gang Wang. Review on three-dimensional graphene: synthesis and joint photoelectric regulation in photodetectors[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2025, In Press. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/25010015 ****
      B K Wang, J Q Zhang, H J Wu, F H Zhu, S S Lian, G Q Cao, H Ma, X R Hu, L Zheng, and G Wang, Review on three-dimensional graphene: synthesis and joint photoelectric regulation in photodetectors[J]. J. Semicond., 2025, 46(7), 071401 doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/25010015
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      Review on three-dimensional graphene: synthesis and joint photoelectric regulation in photodetectors

      DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/25010015
      CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.25010015
      • 1.

        Department of Microelectronic Science and Engineering, School of Physical Science and Technology, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China

      • 2.

        State Key Laboratory of Materials for Integrated Circuits, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, China

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      • Bingkun Wang was born on October 9, 2000, and received her bachelor's degree in 2022 from Guangxi Normal University. Now, she is a graduate student studying at Ningbo University under the supervision of Prof. Gang Wang. Her research focuses on the preparation of graphene with controlled dimensionality and specific physical properties and its applications
      • Gang Wang is a professor at Ningbo University, China. He received the B.S. degree from Lanzhou University in 2011 and Ph.D. degree from Lanzhou University in 2016. 2011−2016, he co-educated in Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Research in his laboratory currently includes preparation and application of graphene quantum dot, graphene films and vertically-aligned graphene arrays, thin-film photoelectric devices and device physics
      • Corresponding author: huxurui@nbu.edu.cn; zhengli@mail.sim.ac.cn; gangwang@nbu.edu.cn
      • Received Date: 2025-01-11
      • Revised Date: 2025-02-17
        • Available Online: 2025-03-03

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