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Failure mechanisms of hydrogel-wet tissue adhesive interfaces: an energy dissipation perspective

Haitao Liu1, Zhiyuan Meng2, Rongrong Bao3, Jing Rao4, , Mengxiao Chen2, and Caofeng Pan2,

+ Author Affiliations

 Corresponding author: Jing Rao, jingrao@buaa.edu.cn; Mengxiao Chen, mengxiaochen@buaa.edu.cn; Caofeng Pan, pancaofeng@buaa.edu.cn

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/26050024CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.26050024

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Abstract: Hydrogel-wet tissue adhesive systems hold great promise for biomedicine and bioelectronics, yet their practical application is severely restricted by interfacial failure in complex physiological environments. Such adhesives frequently suffer from fatigue, delamination and slippage well before reaching their theoretical adhesive strength, proving that conventional strength-based evaluation cannot reflect their actual stability. Classical fracture mechanics and viscoelastic adhesion theories describe failure through energy release rate, work of adhesion, and rate-dependent fracture energy, but they commonly incorporate dissipation into an effective fracture parameter and do not explicitly resolve how energy is stored at the interface, transferred into the bulk, and dissipated across the hydrated interface-bulk continuum. This review organizes current hydrogel-tissue adhesion strategies into a three-tier energy-regulation framework comprising interfacial buffering, interface-to-bulk energy transfer, and bulk dissipation. The framework is connected to measurable quantities, including energy release rate, effective fracture energy, fatigue threshold, interfacial stress concentration, transfer efficiency, and hysteresis loss, to provide semi-quantitative guidance for material design and comparison. Key failure modes, representative structural and molecular strategies, and a practical characterization workflow are discussed. Remaining challenges in parameter identification, cross-scale constitutive modeling, and in vivo validation are outlined.

Keywords: hydrogel, wet tissue adhesion, interfacial failure, energy dissipation



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Fig. 1.  (Color online) Failure mechanism and energy dissipation at hydrogel-wet tissue adhesive interface. (a) Schematic illustration of adhesion between hydrogel and tissue. (b) Failure mechanisms of the hydrogel-wet tissue adhesive interface: the progressive evolution from local damage accumulation to macroscopic interfacial failure under complex physiological loads. (c) Energy dissipation pathways of the hydrogel-wet tissue adhesive interface: the multistage mechanical energy regulation process across interfacial buffering, interface-bulk energy transfer, and bulk energy dissipation.

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Fig. 2.  (Color online) Schematic illustration of hydrogel-tissue adhesive interface failure mechanisms and classification. (a) Models demonstrating stress behavior caused by dynamic loads. (b-d) Three typical interfacial failure modes: fatigue failure from cyclic loading damage, progressive delamination from tensile/peeling crack propagation, and interface sliding from excessive shear stress.

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Fig. 3.  (Color online) Energy dissipation pathways in the hydrogel-wet tissue adhesion interface. (a) Schematic of interfacial energy buffering through a buffering cycle involving the breaking and reformation of dynamic interfacial bonds (e.g., phenolic, ionic links, H-bonds). (b) Interface-to-bulk energy transfer, where energy is directed from the interfacial buffering zone into the hydrogel bulk phase, triggering dynamic bond dissociation. (c) Bulk energy dissipation via sacrificial bond fracture, chain slippage, and bulk network rearrangement at energy dissipation sites.

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Fig. 4.  (Color online) Energy buffering at the interface of adhesion. (a) Schematic illustration of dynamic adhesion bonds breaking and reformation at hydrogel-wet tissue interfaces. Reproduced with permission from ref. [44] Copyright 2026, Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) The effect of hydrophobic chain length on interfacial interactions. Reproduced with permission from ref. [46] Copyright 2023, American Chemical Society. (c) Repeated energy dissipation through interfacial structural rearrangements in biomimetic switchable adhesion. Reproduced with permission from ref. [48] Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society. (d) The change of modulus delays interfacial energy release. Reproduced with permission from ref. [50] Copyright 2025, Springer Nature.

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Fig. 5.  (Color online) Energy transfer from interface to bulk. (a) Schematic illustration of energy transfer pathways induced by the breaking and reformation of dynamic interfacial bonds (e.g., H-bonds, coordination bonds) under mechanical energy input. (b) Infiltration and energy transfer induction process of hydrogel foam at the contact interface. Reproduced with permission from ref. [53] Copyright 2024, John Wiley and Sons. (c) Regulation of system viscoelasticity by gel component (AM/SA) content to optimize energy transfer efficiency. Reproduced with permission from ref. [53] Copyright 2024, John Wiley and Sons. (d-f) Directed transmission and mechanical adaptation: including stress transmission in bioelectronic communication, regulation of compliance and conductance by CNT content, and stress-strain responses under various component ratios. Reproduced with permission from ref. [54] Copyright 2026, John Wiley and Sons.

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Fig. 6.  (Color online) Dissipation of energy in the bulk. (a) Energy dissipation inspired by body network deformation and rearrangements. Reproduced with permission from ref. [57] Copyright 2025, John Wiley and Sons. (b) Supramolecular network-enabled bulk energy dissipation via dynamic hydrogen-bonding clusters. Reproduced with permission from ref. [58] Copyright 2025, John Wiley and Sons. (c) Hierarchical hydrogen- and ion-bond networks for sustainable bulk energy dissipation.

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[25]
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[35]
Yuk H, Wu J J, Zhao X H. Hydrogel interfaces for merging humans and machines. Nat Rev Mater, 2022, 7(12): 935 doi: 10.1038/s41578-022-00483-4
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    Received: 13 May 2026 Revised: 10 July 2026 Online: Accepted Manuscript: 20 August 2026

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      Article Navigation >  Journal of Semiconductors  > 2026  > Accepted Manuscript
      Haitao Liu, Zhiyuan Meng, Rongrong Bao, Jing Rao, Mengxiao Chen, Caofeng Pan. Failure mechanisms of hydrogel-wet tissue adhesive interfaces: an energy dissipation perspective[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2026, In Press. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26050024 ****H T Liu, Z Y Meng, R R Bao, J Rao, M X Chen, and C F Pan, Failure mechanisms of hydrogel-wet tissue adhesive interfaces: an energy dissipation perspective[J]. J. Semicond., 2026, accepted doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26050024
      Citation:
      Haitao Liu, Zhiyuan Meng, Rongrong Bao, Jing Rao, Mengxiao Chen, Caofeng Pan. Failure mechanisms of hydrogel-wet tissue adhesive interfaces: an energy dissipation perspective[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2026, In Press. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26050024 ****
      H T Liu, Z Y Meng, R R Bao, J Rao, M X Chen, and C F Pan, Failure mechanisms of hydrogel-wet tissue adhesive interfaces: an energy dissipation perspective[J]. J. Semicond., 2026, accepted doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26050024
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      Failure mechanisms of hydrogel-wet tissue adhesive interfaces: an energy dissipation perspective

      DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/26050024
      CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.26050024
      • 1.

        School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China

      • 2.

        College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, 310027, Hangzhou, China

      • 3.

        Beijing Key Laboratory for Atomic Manufacturing Equipment and Intelligent Sensing, Institute of Atomic Manufacturing, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China

      • 4.

        School of Instrumentation and Optoelectronic Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China

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      • Haitao Liu received his B E degree from Wuhan University of Technology in 2025. He is currently pursuing his MS degree at Beihang University. His research focuses on flexible sensors, flexible electronics and intelligent sensing systems
      • Jing Rao is a professor at Beihang University. She received her Ph.D. from Nanyang Technological University and was a Humboldt Research Fellowship holder at the Technical University of Munich in Germany. She was also an assistant professor at the University of New South Wales in Australia. Her main research areas are non-destructive testing, flexible sensors, and structural health monitoring
      • Mengxiao Chen is an associate professor at Beihang University. She received her B.S. degree in physics from Northeastern Univer-sity 2012; and Ph. D. degree in physics from Beijing Institute of Nanoenergy and Nanosystems, CAS, in 2017. Then she joined Nanyang Technological University as a research fellow, and worked at the College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science at Zhejiang University in Hangzhou as a Tenure-track Professor. Her main research interests include soft electronics, bioinspired electronics, and novel functional fiber devices
      • Caofeng Pan is a distinguished Professor at Beihang University, and awarded of the National Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars. Prof. Pan earned his bachelor's (2005) and doctoral (2010) degrees from the School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University. He subsequently conducted postdoctoral research at the Georgia Institute of Technology, USA. From 2013 to 2023, he served as a professor and group leader at the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Beijing Institute of Nanoenergy and Nanosystems, CAS. Since 2023, he has been serving as a distinguished professor and leads a research group at the Institute of Atomic Manufacturing, Beihang University. Prof. Pan’s research focuses on atomic-level manufacturing and low-dimensional semiconductor materials/device for sensing applications
      • Corresponding author: jingrao@buaa.edu.cn; mengxiaochen@buaa.edu.cn; pancaofeng@buaa.edu.cn
      • Received Date: 2026-05-13
      • Revised Date: 2026-07-10
        • Available Online: 2026-08-20

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