Advances in microneedle electrodes for electromyography acquisition in sports rehabilitation

Xiaofei Xu; Yuhan Bian; Zhiyuan Meng; Yanzhen Jing; Wenqiang Yang; Jing Rao; Mengxiao Chen; CaofengPan

doi:10.1088/1674-4926/26050025

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Advances in microneedle electrodes for electromyography acquisition in sports rehabilitation

Xiaofei Xu¹, Yuhan Bian², Zhiyuan Meng², Yanzhen Jing², Wenqiang Yang⁴, Jing Rao^3,, Mengxiao Chen^4, and CaofengPan^4,

+ Author Affiliations

1. School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
2. College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
3. School of Instrumentation and Optoelectronic Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
4. Beijing Key Laboratory for Atomic Manufacturing Equipment and Intelligent Sensing, Institute of Atomic Manufacturing, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China

Author Bio:

Xiaofei Xu received his B.E. degree from Beijing University of Technology in 2025. He is currently pursuing his M.E. degree under the guidance of Prof. Caofeng Pan at Beihang University. His research focuses on wearable electromyography acquisition technology and its application in sports rehabilitation.

Jing Rao is a professor at Beihang University. She received her Ph.D. from Nanyang Technological University and was a Humboldt Research Fellowship holder at the Technical University of Munich in Germany. She was also an assistant professor at the University of New South Wales in Australia. Her main research areas are non-destructive testing, flexible sensors, and structural health monitoring.

Mengxiao Chen is an associate professor at Beihang University. She received her B.S. degree in physics from Northeastern University 2012; and Ph. D. degree in physics from Beijing Institute of Nanoenergy and Nanosystems, CAS, in 2017. Then she joined Nanyang Technological University as a research fellow, and worked at the College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science at Zhejiang University in Hangzhou as a Tenure-track Professor. Her main research interests include soft electronics, bioinspired electronics, and novel functional fiber devices.

Caofeng Pan is a distinguished Professor at Beihang University, and awarded of the National Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars. Prof. Pan earned his bachelor's (2005) and doctoral (2010) degrees from the School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University. He subsequently conducted postdoctoral research at the Georgia Institute of Technology, USA. From 2013 to 2023, he served as a professor and group leader at the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Beijing Institute of Nanoenergy and Nanosystems, CAS. Since 2023, he has been serving as a distinguished professor and leads a research group at the Institute of Atomic Manufacturing, Beihang University. Prof. Pan’s research focuses on atomic-level manufacturing and low-dimensional semiconductor materials/device for sensing applications.

Corresponding author: J. Rao, jingrao@buaa.edu.cn; M. Chen, mengxiaochen@buaa.edu.cn; C. Pan, pancaofeng@buaa.edu.cn

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/26050025CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.26050025

Abstract: Electromyography (EMG) is widely used in sports rehabilitation to evaluate muscle activation, coordination, fatigue, and functional recovery, yet reliable recording remains limited by the electrode−skin interface during repeated motion and prolonged wear. Microneedle electrodes offer a distinct interface strategy by penetrating the stratum corneum and forming lower-impedance, more stable electrical contact than conventional wet or dry electrodes. This review discusses microneedle electrodes for EMG acquisition in sports rehabilitation from a design−to−application perspective. We first clarify the interface requirements of EMG recording in rehabilitation settings and the technical rationale for using microneedle interfaces. We then summarize material and structural design strategies in silicon-, polymer-, and metal-based systems, focusing on how they balance penetration capability, mechanical compliance, stretchability, conductivity, and recording stability. Fabrication routes are further examined in terms of material-structure-process coupling, followed by applications in static assessment, dynamic motion monitoring, and clinical rehabilitation evaluation. This review integrates interface requirements, design, manufacturing, and validation to provide a structured overview of microneedle EMG electrodes' capabilities and limitations for sports rehabilitation.

Keywords: microneedle electrode, electromyography, sports rehabilitation, flexible electronics, wearable sensor

References

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Fig. 1. (Color online) Physiological basis and acquisition principle of electromyographic signals. (a) Motor commands are transmitted from the cortex via the spinal cord to skeletal muscles. (b) α-motoneurons activate muscle fibers at the neuromuscular junction. (c) Spatial summation of asynchronous electrical activities from multiple muscle fibers (colored waveforms) forms the compound EMG signal (blue waveform). Yellow lines indicate the signal transduction pathway. Abbreviation: EMG, electromyography.

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Fig. 2. (Color online) Advantages and working principles of microneedle electrodes. (a) Limitations of conventional electrodes. Optical images show different skin conditions. (b) Comparison of standard deviations of electrode impedance under clean skin conditions. (c) Evolution of microneedle electrode technologies. (d) Equivalent circuit models of different electrode-skin interfaces: (i) gel electrode, (ii) electrically conductive adhesive (ECA) electrode, (iii) flexible microneedle electrode (FME), and (iv) stretchable microneedle adhesive patch (SNAP). (a, b, d) Adapted with permission from Ref. [14]. Copyright 2024, The Author(s), some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. (c) Adapted with permission from Ref. [15]. Copyright 2024, The Author(s), some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science.

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Fig. 3. (Color online) Structure and fabrication of microneedle electrodes with different materials. (a, b) Silicon-based microneedle electrodes: (a) skin integration schematic and exploded multilayer structure; (b) three-dimensional layered architecture with material and thickness annotations. (c) Polymer microneedle electrode fabrication process and magnified structural details. (d−g) Metal microneedle electrodes: d SEM comparison before and after Au plating; e−g optical images from different views. Abbreviations: PI, polyimide; SEM, scanning electron microscopy.(a) Adapted with permission from Ref. [14]. Copyright 2024, The Author(s), some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. (b) Adapted from Ref. [13] under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Copyright 2023, The Author(s), published by Springer Nature. (c) Adapted with permission from Ref. [15]. Copyright 2024, The Author(s), some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. (d−g) Adapted from Ref. [16] under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Copyright 2024, The Author(s), published by Springer Nature.

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Fig. 4. (Color online) Stretchable design and biomechanical interfacing of microneedle electrodes. (a−d) Optical images of serpentine interconnect designs for polymer-based (a, b) and silicon-based (c, d) microneedle electrodes. (e) Bioinspired interface design and the corresponding cross-sectional view of tissue embedding. (f) Schematic illustration of viscoelastic matching between the substrate and skin. (g) Relative resistance changes as a function of tensile strain; the red shaded region indicates the physiological strain range of human skin. (a, b) Adapted with permission from Ref. [15]. Copyright 2024, The Author(s), some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. (c−e) Adapted from Ref. [13] under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Copyright 2023, The Author(s), published by Springer Nature. (f, g) Adapted with permission from Ref. [14]. Copyright 2024, The Author(s), some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science.

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Fig. 5. (Color online) Microfabrication strategies for microneedle electrode arrays. (a) Top-down silicon microfabrication process using DRIE and anisotropic wet etching to form microneedle geometry, followed by polyimide encapsulation and metallization and transfer onto a flexible substrate. (b) Bottom-up polymer microfabrication approach based on laser micromachining, replica molding, microfabrication, and transfer printing. (c) Laser micromachining process for metal microneedles and printed circuit board processes for flexible circuit fabrication. (a) Adapted from Ref. [13] under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Copyright 2023, The Author(s), published by Springer Nature. (b) Adapted with permission from Ref. [15]. Copyright 2024, The Author(s), some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. (c) Adapted from Ref. [16] under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Copyright 2024, The Author(s), published by Springer Nature.

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Fig. 6. (Color online) Applications of microneedle electrodes in sports rehabilitation. (a, b) Comparison of intramuscular EMG and surface EMG. (c) Movement patterns and corresponding EMG recordings. (d) Demonstration of closed-loop EMG control for an exoskeleton robot. (e) Comparison of root-mean-square (RMS) EMG values under robot-assisted and non-assisted conditions. (f) Facial EMG amplitude differences before and after surgery in a patient with unilateral facial palsy under different facial expressions. (a, b) Adapted with permission from Ref. [15]. Copyright 2024, The Author(s), some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. (c−e) Adapted with permission from Ref. [14]. Copyright 2024, The Author(s), some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. (f) Adapted from Ref. [17] under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Copyright 2024, The Author(s), published by Springer Nature.

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Table 1. Comparison of representative fabrication strategies for microneedle electrodes.

Material/system	Fabrication strategy	Advantages	Limitations	Refs.
Silicon/metal-coated Si	KOH etching or DRIE; metallization	High precision; reliable penetration	High cost; brittle; difficult transfer	[13, 14, 31]
Polymer/PLGA or magnetorheological polymer	Thermal drawing; magnetic self-assembly; MRDL	Low cost; rapid forming	Limited precision; coating required	[32−35]
Polymer/PI, epoxy, SU−8	Micromolding; replica molding; laser−assisted molding	Tunable geometry; flexible integration	Mold−dependent; multi−step process	[15, 20, 28, 37]
Functional polymer/composite microneedles	Conductive coating; composite modification	Good comfort; biocompatible	Coating uniformity; stability concern	[17, 21−24, 29]
Polymer/resin microneedles	3D printing; conductive coating	Fast prototyping; customizable	Rough surface; limited resolution	[30]
Metal/stainless steel or Au-modified metal	Laser cutting; chemical etching; FPC assembly	Conductive; strong; multichannel	Assembly variation; tissue mismatch	[16, 40−43]
Metal-coated barbed microneedles	Barbed microfabrication; metal coating	Strong anchoring; anti-detachment	Complex geometry; reproducibility issue	[27]
Metal/3D-printed stainless steel	Direct metal laser sintering	One-step forming; customizable	Rough surface; post-treatment needed	[39]
Metal/alloy or ultrathin metal	Alloy micromolding; micro/nano−electroforming	Low temperature; flexible metal	Mold dependence; uniformity issue	[25, 26]

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[1]	De Luca C J. The use of surface electromyography in biomechanics. J Appl Biomech, 1997, 13(2): 135 doi: 10.1123/jab.13.2.135
[2]	Farina D, Merletti R, Enoka R M. The extraction of neural strategies from the surface EMG. J Appl Physiol, 2004, 96(4): 1486 doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01070.2003
[3]	Hermens H J, Freriks B, Disselhorst-Klug C, et al. Development of recommendations for SEMG sensors and sensor placement procedures. J Electromyogr Kinesiol, 2000, 10(5): 361 doi: 10.1016/S1050-6411(00)00027-4
[4]	Merletti R, Muceli S. Tutorial. Surface EMG detection in space and time: Best practices. J Electromyogr Kinesiol, 2019, 49: 102363
[5]	Campanini I, Disselhorst-Klug C, Rymer W Z, et al. Surface EMG in clinical assessment and neurorehabilitation: Barriers limiting its use. Front Neurol, 2020, 11: 934 doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.00934
[6]	Searle A, Kirkup L. A direct comparison of wet, dry and insulating bioelectric recording. Physiol Meas, 2000, 21(2): 271 doi: 10.1088/0967-3334/21/2/307
[7]	Tam H, Webster J G. Minimizing electrode motion artifact by skin abrasion. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng, 1977, BME-24(2): 134
[8]	Fu Y L, Zhao J J, Dong Y, et al. Dry electrodes for human bioelectrical signal monitoring. Sensors, 2020, 20(13): 3651 doi: 10.3390/s20133651
[9]	Krieger K J, Lijnse T M, Lowery M M, et al. Microneedle electrodes for electromyography. Biosens Bioelectron, 2025, 290: 117945 doi: 10.1016/j.bios.2025.117945
[10]	Ren L, Liu B, Zhou W, et al. A mini review of microneedle array electrode for bio-signal recording: A review. IEEE Sens J, 2020, 20(2): 577 doi: 10.1109/JSEN.2019.2944847
[11]	Griss P, Tolvanen-Laakso H K, Merilainen P, et al. Characterization of micromachined spiked biopotential electrodes. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng, 2002, 49(6): 597 doi: 10.1109/TBME.2002.1001974
[12]	Kaushik S, Hord A H, Denson D D, et al. Lack of pain associated with microfabricated microneedles. Anesth Analg, 2001, 92(2): 502 doi: 10.1213/00000539-200102000-00041
[13]	Ji H W, Wang M Y, Wang Y T, et al. Skin-integrated, biocompatible, and stretchable silicon microneedle electrode for long-term EMG monitoring in motion scenario. npj Flex Electron, 2023, 7: 46 doi: 10.1038/s41528-023-00279-8
[14]	Kim H, Lee J, Heo U, et al. Skin preparation–free, stretchable microneedle adhesive patches for reliable electrophysiological sensing and exoskeleton robot control. Sci Adv, 2024, 10(3): eadk5260 doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adk5260
[15]	Zhao Q N, Gribkova E, Shen Y Y, et al. Highly stretchable and customizable microneedle electrode arrays for intramuscular electromyography. Sci Adv, 2024, 10(18): eadn7202 doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adn7202
[16]	Liu Z J, Xu X Y, Huang S, et al. Multichannel microneedle dry electrode patches for minimally invasive transdermal recording of electrophysiological signals. Microsyst Nanoeng, 2024, 10: 72 doi: 10.1038/s41378-024-00702-8
[17]	Zhou W, Wang Z Y, Xu Q, et al. Wireless facial biosensing system for monitoring facial palsy with flexible microneedle electrode arrays. npj Digit Med, 2024, 7: 13 doi: 10.1038/s41746-024-01002-1
[18]	Qi M, Yang R Q, Wang Z, et al. Bioinspired self-healing soft electronics. Adv Funct Mater, 2023, 33(17): 2214479 doi: 10.1002/adfm.202214479
[19]	Wang Y S, Zhou R H, Huang J Y, et al. High-permittivity and low-hysteresis dielectric elastomer for near-free dynamic hysteresis and high-fidelity strain sensors. Rare Met, 2025, 44(10): 7658 doi: 10.1007/s12598-025-03454-0
[20]	Li J S, Ma Y D, Huang D, et al. High-performance flexible microneedle array as a low-impedance surface biopotential dry electrode for wearable electrophysiological recording and polysomnography. Nano Micro Lett, 2022, 14(1): 132 doi: 10.1007/s40820-022-00870-0
[21]	Wang X, Qiu W, Lu C S, et al. Fabrication of flexible and conductive microneedle array electrodes from silk fibroin by mesoscopic engineering. Adv Funct Mater, 2024, 34(30): 2311535 doi: 10.1002/adfm.202311535
[22]	Singh O P, Bocchino A, Guillerm T, et al. Flexible, conductive fabric-backed, microneedle electrodes for electrophysiological monitoring. Adv Mater Technol, 2024, 9(3): 2301606 doi: 10.1002/admt.202301606
[23]	Xing L X, Liu L H, Jin R, et al. Flexible yet durable microneedle electrodes based on nanowire-embedded polyimide for precise wearable electrophysiological monitoring. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2024, 16(42): 57695 doi: 10.1021/acsami.4c12768
[24]	Juillard S, Planat-Chrétien A, Texier I. Biodegradable microneedle-based electrodes for electrophysiological measurements. J Mater Chem B, 2025, 13(32): 10009 doi: 10.1039/D5TB00727E
[25]	Gwak H, Cho S, Song Y J, et al. A study on the fabrication of metal microneedle array electrodes for ECG detection based on low melting point Bi–In–Sn alloys. Sci Rep, 2023, 13: 22931 doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-50472-y
[26]	Sun C Y, Liang H H, Wang X J, et al. Noninvasive, ultrathin, flexible microneedle electrodes for accurate and long-term biopotential monitoring. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2025, 17(47): 64077 doi: 10.1021/acsami.5c13122
[27]	Dong C-W, Lee C J, Lee D H, et al. Fabrication of barbed-microneedle array for bio-signal measurement. Sens Actuat A Phys, 2024, 367: 115040 doi: 10.1016/j.sna.2024.115040
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Received: 14 February 2026 Revised: 08 June 2026 Online: Accepted Manuscript: 13 July 2026

Article Navigation > Journal of Semiconductors > 2026 > Accepted Manuscript

Xiaofei Xu, Yuhan Bian, Zhiyuan Meng, Yanzhen Jing, Wenqiang Yang, Jing Rao, Mengxiao Chen, CaofengPan. Advances in microneedle electrodes for electromyography acquisition in sports rehabilitation[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2026, In Press. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26050025 ****X F Xu, Y H Bian, Z Y Meng, Y Z Jing, W Q Yang, J Rao, M X Chen, and , Advances in microneedle electrodes for electromyography acquisition in sports rehabilitation[J]. J. Semicond., 2026, accepted doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26050025

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X F Xu, Y H Bian, Z Y Meng, Y Z Jing, W Q Yang, J Rao, M X Chen, and , Advances in microneedle electrodes for electromyography acquisition in sports rehabilitation[J]. J. Semicond., 2026, accepted doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26050025

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Advances in microneedle electrodes for electromyography acquisition in sports rehabilitation

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/26050025

CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.26050025

1.
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
2.
College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
3.
School of Instrumentation and Optoelectronic Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
4.
Beijing Key Laboratory for Atomic Manufacturing Equipment and Intelligent Sensing, Institute of Atomic Manufacturing, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China

More Information

Xiaofei Xu received his B.E. degree from Beijing University of Technology in 2025. He is currently pursuing his M.E. degree under the guidance of Prof. Caofeng Pan at Beihang University. His research focuses on wearable electromyography acquisition technology and its application in sports rehabilitation
Jing Rao is a professor at Beihang University. She received her Ph.D. from Nanyang Technological University and was a Humboldt Research Fellowship holder at the Technical University of Munich in Germany. She was also an assistant professor at the University of New South Wales in Australia. Her main research areas are non-destructive testing, flexible sensors, and structural health monitoring
Mengxiao Chen is an associate professor at Beihang University. She received her B.S. degree in physics from Northeastern University 2012; and Ph. D. degree in physics from Beijing Institute of Nanoenergy and Nanosystems, CAS, in 2017. Then she joined Nanyang Technological University as a research fellow, and worked at the College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science at Zhejiang University in Hangzhou as a Tenure-track Professor. Her main research interests include soft electronics, bioinspired electronics, and novel functional fiber devices
Caofeng Pan is a distinguished Professor at Beihang University, and awarded of the National Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars. Prof. Pan earned his bachelor's (2005) and doctoral (2010) degrees from the School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University. He subsequently conducted postdoctoral research at the Georgia Institute of Technology, USA. From 2013 to 2023, he served as a professor and group leader at the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Beijing Institute of Nanoenergy and Nanosystems, CAS. Since 2023, he has been serving as a distinguished professor and leads a research group at the Institute of Atomic Manufacturing, Beihang University. Prof. Pan’s research focuses on atomic-level manufacturing and low-dimensional semiconductor materials/device for sensing applications
Corresponding author: J. Rao, jingrao@buaa.edu.cn; M. Chen, mengxiaochen@buaa.edu.cn; C. Pan, pancaofeng@buaa.edu.cn
Received Date: 2026-02-14
Revised Date: 2026-06-08

Available Online: 2026-07-13

Abstract

Abstract

Electromyography (EMG) is widely used in sports rehabilitation to evaluate muscle activation, coordination, fatigue, and functional recovery, yet reliable recording remains limited by the electrode−skin interface during repeated motion and prolonged wear. Microneedle electrodes offer a distinct interface strategy by penetrating the stratum corneum and forming lower-impedance, more stable electrical contact than conventional wet or dry electrodes. This review discusses microneedle electrodes for EMG acquisition in sports rehabilitation from a design−to−application perspective. We first clarify the interface requirements of EMG recording in rehabilitation settings and the technical rationale for using microneedle interfaces. We then summarize material and structural design strategies in silicon-, polymer-, and metal-based systems, focusing on how they balance penetration capability, mechanical compliance, stretchability, conductivity, and recording stability. Fabrication routes are further examined in terms of material-structure-process coupling, followed by applications in static assessment, dynamic motion monitoring, and clinical rehabilitation evaluation. This review integrates interface requirements, design, manufacturing, and validation to provide a structured overview of microneedle EMG electrodes' capabilities and limitations for sports rehabilitation.
- microneedle electrode,
- electromyography,
- sports rehabilitation,
- flexible electronics,
- wearable sensor

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