III–V ternary nanowires on Si substrates: growth, characterization and device applications

Giorgos Boras; Xuezhe Yu; Huiyun Liu

doi:10.1088/1674-4926/40/10/101301

J. Semicond. > 2019, Volume 40 > Issue 10 > 101301

REVIEWS

III–V ternary nanowires on Si substrates: growth, characterization and device applications

Giorgos Boras, Xuezhe Yu and Huiyun Liu

+ Author Affiliations

Corresponding author: Xuezhe Yu, xuezhe.yu@ucl.ac.uk

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/40/10/101301

Abstract: Over the past decades, the progress in the growth of materials which can be applied to cutting-edge technologies in the field of electronics, optoelectronics and energy harvesting has been remarkable. Among the various materials, group III–V semiconductors are of particular interest and have been widely investigated due to their excellent optical properties and high carrier mobility. However, the integration of III–V structures as light sources and numerous other optical components on Si, which is the foundation for most optoelectronic and electronic integrated circuits, has been hindered by the large lattice mismatch between these compounds. This mismatch results in substantial amounts of strain and degradation of the performance of the devices. Nanowires (NWs) are unique nanostructures that induce elastic strain relaxation, allowing for the monolithic integration of III–V semiconductors on the cheap and mature Si platform. A technique that ensures flexibility and freedom in the design of NW structures is the growth of ternary III–V NWs, which offer a tuneable frame of optical characteristics, merely by adjusting their nominal composition. In this review, we will focus on the recent progress in the growth of ternary III–V NWs on Si substrates. After analysing the growth mechanisms that are being employed and describing the effect of strain in the NW growth, we will thoroughly inspect the available literature and present the growth methods, characterization and optical measurements of each of the III–V ternary alloys that have been demonstrated. The different properties and special treatments required for each of these material platforms are also discussed. Moreover, we will present the results from the works on device fabrication, including lasers, solar cells, water splitting devices, photodetectors and FETs, where ternary III–V NWs were used as building blocks. Through the current paper, we exhibit the up-to-date state in this field of research and summarize the important accomplishments of the past few years.

Key words: ternary alloys, III–V nanowires, Si substrates, growth, devices

References

[1]	Tong Q Y, Gösele U. Semiconductor wafer bonding, science and technology. John Wiley & Sons, 1999, 204
[2]	Palit S, Kirch J, Huang M, et al. Facet-embedded thin-film III–V edge-emitting lasers integrated with SU-8 waveguides on silicon. Opt Lett, 2010, 35(20), 3474 doi: 10.1364/OL.35.003474
[3]	Palit S, Kirch J, Tsvid G, et al. Low-threshold thin-film III–V lasers bonded to silicon with front and back side defined features. Opt Lett, 2009, 34(18), 2802 doi: 10.1364/OL.34.002802
[4]	Bogdanov M V, Bulashevich K A, Khokhlev O V, et al. Current crowding effect on light extraction efficiency of thin-film LEDs. Phys Stat Solidi C, 2010, 7(7/8), 2124 doi: 10.1002/pssc.200983415
[5]	Wierer J J Jr, David A, Megens M M. III-nitride photonic-crystal light-emitting diodes with high extraction efficiency. Nat Photonics, 2009, 3, 163 doi: 10.1038/nphoton.2009.21
[6]	Pouladi S, Rathi M, Khatiwada D, et al. High-efficiency flexible III–V photovoltaic solar cells based on single-crystal-like thin films directly grown on metallic tapes. Prog Photovolt Res Appl, 2019, 27, 30 doi: 10.1002/pip.3070
[7]	Tanabe K. A review of ultrahigh efficiency III–V semiconductor compound solar cells: multijunction tandem, lower dimensional. photonic up/down conversion and plasmonic nanometallic structures. Energy, 2009, 2, 504 doi: 10.3390/en20300695
[8]	Yokohama M, Yasuda T, Takagi H, et al. Thin body III–V semiconductor-on-insulator metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors on Si fabicated using direct wafer bonding. Appl Phys Express, 2009, 2, 124501 doi: 10.1143/APEX.2.124501
[9]	Ye P D. Main determinants for III–V metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors. J Vac Sci Technol A, 2008, 26(4), 697 doi: 10.1116/1.2905246
[10]	Dubrovskii V G. Theory of VLS growth of compound semiconductors, semiconductors and semimetals. Chapter 1. Elsevier Inc, 2015, 93
[11]	Bolkhovityanov Y B, Pchelyakov O P. GaAs epitaxy on Si substrates: modern status of research and engineering. Phys Usp, 2008, 51(5), 437 doi: 10.1070/PU2008v051n05ABEH006529
[12]	Wang T, Liu H, Lee A, et al. 1.3-μm InAs/GaAs quantum-dot lasers monolithically grown on Si substrates. Opt Express, 2011, 19(12), 11381 doi: 10.1364/OE.19.011381
[13]	Chang E Y, Yang T H, Luo G, et al. A GeSi-buffer structure for growth of high-quality GaAs epitaxial layers on a Si substrate. J Electron Mater, 2005, 34(1), 23 doi: 10.1007/s11664-005-0175-5
[14]	Fitzgerald E A, Xie Y H, Green M L, et al. Totally relaxed Ge_xSi_{1– x} layers with low threading dislocation densities grown on Si substrates. Appl Phys Lett, 1991, 59, 811 doi: 10.1063/1.105351
[15]	Dixit V K, Ganguli T, Sharma T K, et al. Studies on MOVPE growth of GaP epitaxial layer on Si (001) substrate and effects of annealing. J Cryst Growth, 2006, 293(1), 5 doi: 10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2006.03.060
[16]	Komatsu Y, Hosotani K, Fuyuki T, et al. Heteroepitaxial growth of InGaP on Si with InGaP/GaP step-graded buffer layers. Jpn J Appl Phys, 1997, 36, 5425 doi: 10.1143/JJAP.36.5425
[17]	Tsuji T, Yonezu H, Ohshima N. Selective epitaxial growth of GaAs on Si with strained short-period superlattices by molecular beam epitaxy under atomic hydrogen irradiation. J Vac Sci Technol B, 2004, 22(3), 1428 doi: 10.1116/1.1736634
[18]	Gösele U, Bluhm Y, Kastner G, et al. Fundamental issues in wafer bonding. J Vac Sci Technol A, 1999, 17(4), 1145 doi: 10.1116/1.581788
[19]	Mårtensson T, Svensson C P T, Wacaser B A, et al. Epitaxial III–V nanowires on silicon. Nano Lett, 2004, 4(10), 1987 doi: 10.1021/nl0487267
[20]	Treu J, Stettner T, Watzinger M, et al. Lattice-matched InGaAs−InAlAs core−shell nanowires with improved luminescence and photoresponse properties. Nano Lett, 2015, 15(5), 3533 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b00979
[21]	Shin J C, Lee A, Mohseni P K, et al. Wafer-scale production of uniform InAs_yP_{1– y} nanowire array on silicon for heterogeneous integration. ACS Nano, 2013, 7(6), 5463 doi: 10.1021/nn4014774
[22]	Wu J, Li Y, Kubota J, et al. Wafer-scale fabrication of self-catalyzed 1.7 eV GaAsP core−shell nanowire photocathode on silicon substrates. Nano Lett, 2014, 14(4), 2013 doi: 10.1021/nl500170m
[23]	Saxena D, Jiang N, Yuan X, et al. Design and room-temperature operation of GaAs/AlGaAs multiple quantum well nanowire lasers. Nano Lett, 2016, 16(8), 5080 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b01973
[24]	Stettner T, Zimmermann P, Loitsch B, et al. Coaxial GaAs–AlGaAs core-multishell nanowire lasers with epitaxial gain control. Appl Phys Lett, 2016, 108, 011108 doi: 10.1063/1.4939549
[25]	Tomioka K, Motohisa J, Hara S, et al. GaAs/AlGaAs core multishell nanowire-based light-emitting diodes on Si. Nano Lett, 2010, 10(5), 1639 doi: 10.1021/nl9041774
[26]	Svensson C P T, Mårtensson T, Trägårdh J, et al. Monolithic GaAs/InGaP nanowire light emitting diodes on silicon. Nanotechnology, 2008, 19, 305201 doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/19/30/305201
[27]	Huh J, Kim D C, Munshi A M, et al. Low frequency noise in single GaAsSb nanowires with self-induced compositional gradients. Nanotechnology, 2016, 27, 385703 doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/27/38/385703
[28]	Sharma M, Ahmad E, Dev D, et al. Improved performance of GaAsSb/AlGaAs nanowire ensemble Schottky barrier based photodetector via in situ annealing. Nanotechnology, 2019, 30, 034005 doi: 10.1088/1361-6528/aae148
[29]	Ren D, Dheeraj D L, Jin C, et al. New insights into the origins of Sb-induced effects on self-catalyzed GaAsSb nanowire arrays. Nano Lett, 2016, 16(2), 1201 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b04503
[30]	Sourribes M J L, Isakov I, Panfilova M, et al. Mobility enhancement by sb-mediated minimisation of stacking fault density in InAs nanowires grown on silicon. Nano Lett, 2014, 14(3), 1643 doi: 10.1021/nl5001554
[31]	Tomioka K, Yoshimura M, Fukui T. A III–V nanowire channel on silicon for high-performance vertical transistors. Nature, 2012, 488, 189 doi: 10.1038/nature11293
[32]	Hou J J, Han N, Wang F, et al. Synthesis and characterizations of ternary ingaas nanowires by a two-step growth method for high-performance electronic devices. ACS Nano, 2012, 6(4), 3624 doi: 10.1021/nn300966j
[33]	Bengoechea-Encabo A, Barbagini F, Fernandez-Garrido S, et al. Understanding the selective area growth of GaN nanocolumns by MBE using Ti nanomasks. J Cryst Growth, 2011, 325(1), 89 doi: 10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2011.04.035
[34]	Ji X, Yang X, Du W, et al. Selective-area MOCVD growth and carrier-transport-type control of InAs(Sb)/GaSb core–shell nanowires. Nano Lett, 2016, 16(12), 7580 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b03429
[35]	Tomioka K. Selective-area growth of III–V nanowires and their applications. J Mater Res, 2011, 26(17), 2127 doi: 10.1557/jmr.2011.103
[36]	Tomioka K, Tanaka T, Hara S, et al. III–V nanowires on Si substrate: selective-area growth and device applications. IEEE J Sel Top Quantum Electron, 2011, 17(4), 1112 doi: 10.1109/JSTQE.2010.2068280
[37]	Yamano K, Kishino K. Selective area growth of InGaN-based nanocolumn LED crystals on AlN/Si substrates useful for integrated μ-LED fabrication. Appl Phys Lett, 2018, 112(9), 091105 doi: 10.1063/1.5022298
[38]	Kohen D, Tileli V, Cayron C, et al. Al catalyzed growth of silicon nanowires and subsequent in situ dry etching of the catalyst for photovoltaic application. Phys Status Solidi A, 2011, 208(11), 2676 doi: 10.1002/pssa.201127072
[39]	Wagner R S, Ellis W C. Vapor-liquid-solid mechanism of single-crystal growth. Appl Phys Lett, 1964, 4(5), 89 doi: 10.1063/1.1753975
[40]	Messing M E, Hillerich K, Johansson J, et al. The use of gold for fabrication of nanowire structures. Gold Bulletin, 2009, 42(3), 172 doi: 10.1007/BF03214931
[41]	Zhang Y, Wu J, Aagesen M, et al. III–V nanowires and nanowire optoelectronic devices. J Phys D, 2015, 48, 463001 doi: 10.1088/0022-3727/48/46/463001
[42]	Li N, Tan T Y, Gösele U. Transition region width of nanowire hetero- and pn-junctions grown using vapor–liquid–solid processes. Appl Phys A, 2008, 90, 591 doi: 10.1007/s00339-007-4376-z
[43]	Sarkar K, Palit M, Banerji P, et al. Silver catalyzed growth of In_xGa_{1– x}As nanowires on Si (001) by metal–organic chemical vapour deposition. CrystEngComm, 2015, 17, 8519 doi: 10.1039/C5CE01565K
[44]	Colombo C, Spirkoska D, Frimmer M, et al. Ga-assisted catalyst-free growth mechanism of GaAs nanowires by molecular beam epitaxy. Phys Rev B, 2008, 77, 155326 doi: 10.1103/PhysRevB.77.155326
[45]	Ghalamestani S G, Ek M, Ghasemi M, et al. Morphology and composition controlled Ga_xIn_{1– x}Sb nanowires: understanding ternary antimonide growth. Nanoscale, 2014, 6, 1086 doi: 10.1039/C3NR05079C
[46]	Berg A, Lenrick F, Vainorius N, et al. Growth parameter design for homogeneous material composition in ternary Ga_xIn_{1– x}P nanowires. Nanotechnology, 2015, 26, 435601 doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/26/43/435601
[47]	Dick K A, Bolinsson J, Borg B M, et al. Controlling the abruptness of axial heterojunctions in III–V nanowires: beyond the reservoir effect. Nano Lett, 2012, 12(6), 3200 doi: 10.1021/nl301185x
[48]	Motohisa J, Noborisaka J, Hara S, et al. Catalyst-free growth of semiconductor nanowires by selective area MOVPE. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2005, 772, 877 doi: 10.1063/1.1994386
[49]	Koblmuüller G, Abstreiter G. Growth and properties of InGaAs nanowires on silicon. Phys Status Solidi, 2013, 7(10), 11 doi: 10.1002/pssr.201308207
[50]	Shin J C, Choi K J, Kim D Y, et al. Characteristics of strain-induced In_xGa_{1– x}As nanowires grown on Si (111) substrates. Cryst Growth Des, 2012, 12, 2994 doi: 10.1021/cg300210h
[51]	Glas F. Critical dimensions for the plastic relaxation of strained axial heterostructures in free-standing nanowires. Phys Rev B, 2006, 74, 121302 doi: 10.1103/PhysRevB.74.121302
[52]	Li L, Pan D, Xue Y, et al. Near full-composition-range high-quality GaAs_{1– x}Sb_x nanowires grown by molecular beam epitaxy. Nano Lett, 2017, 17(2), 622 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b03326
[53]	van der Merwe J H. Misfit dislocations in epitaxy. Metall Mater Trans A, 2002, 33(8), 2475 doi: 10.1007/s11661-002-0369-x
[54]	Kavanagh K L. Misfit dislocations in nanowire heterostructures. Semicond Sci Technol, 2010, 25, 024006 doi: 10.1088/0268-1242/25/2/024006
[55]	de la Mata M, Magen C, Caroff P, et al. Atomic scale strain relaxation in axial semiconductor III–V nanowire heterostructures. Nano Lett, 2014, 14(11), 6614 doi: 10.1021/nl503273j
[56]	Grönqvist J, Søndergaard N, Boxberg F, et al. Strain in semiconductor core/shell nanowires. J Appl Phys, 2009, 106, 053508 doi: 10.1063/1.3207838
[57]	Ferrand D, Cibert J. Strain in crystalline core-shell nanowires. Eur Phys J: Appl Phys, 2014, 67(3), 30403 doi: 10.1051/epjap/2014140156
[58]	Gagliano L, Albani M, Verheijen M A, et al. Twofold origin of strain-induced bending in core-shell nanowires: the GaP/InGaP case. Nanotechnology, 2018, 29(31), 315703 doi: 10.1088/1361-6528/aac417
[59]	Lewis R B, Corfdir P, Kupers H, et al. nanowires bending over backward from strain partitioning in asymmetric core-shell heterostructures. Nano Lett, 2018, 18(4), 2343 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b05221
[60]	Kavanagh K L, Saveliev I, Blumin M, et al. Faster radial strain relaxation in InAs–GaAs core–shell heterowires. Appl Phys Lett, 2012, 111, 044301 doi: 10.1063/1.3684964
[61]	Dayeh S A, Tang W, Boioli F, et al. Direct measurement of coherency limits for strain relaxation in heteroepitaxial core/shell nanowires. Nano Lett, 2013, 13(5), 1869 doi: 10.1021/nl3022434
[62]	Gronqvist J, Sondergaard N, Boxberg F, et al. Strain in semiconductor core/shell nanowires. J Appl Phys, 2009, 106, 053508 doi: 10.1063/1.3207838
[63]	Biermanns A, Rieger T, Bussone G, et al. Axial strain in GaAs/InAs core–shell nanowires. Appl Phys Lett, 2013, 102, 043109 doi: 10.1063/1.4790185
[64]	Zeng H, Yu X, Fonseka H A, et al. Hybrid III–V/IV nanowires: high- quality Ge shell epitaxy on GaAs cores. Nano Lett, 2018, 18(10), 6397 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b02760
[65]	Tietjen J J, Amick J A. The preparation and properties of vapour-deposited epitaxial GaAs_{1– x}P_x using arsine and phosphine. J Electrochem Soc, 1966, 113, 724 doi: 10.1149/1.2424100
[66]	Priante G, Patriarche G, Oehler F, et al. Abrupt GaP/GaAs interfaces in self-catalyzed nanowires. Nano Lett, 2015, 15(9), 6036 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b02224
[67]	Halder N N, Kelrich A, Cohen S, et al. Pure wurtzite GaP nanowires grown on zincblende GaP substrates by selective area vapor liquid solid epitaxy. Nanotechnology, 2017, 28, 465603 doi: 10.1088/1361-6528/aa8b60
[68]	Im H S, Jung C S, Park K, et al. Band gap tuning of twinned GaAsP ternary nanowires. J Phys Chem C, 2014, 118(8), 4546 doi: 10.1021/jp500458j
[69]	Zhang Y, Aagesen M, Holm J V, et al. Self-catalyzed GaAsP nanowires grown on silicon substrates by solid-source molecular beam epitaxy. Nano Lett, 2013, 13(8), 3897 doi: 10.1021/nl401981u
[70]	Zhang Y, Wu J, Aagesen M, et al. Self-catalyzed ternary core-shell GaAsP nanowire arrays grown on patterned Si substrates by molecular beam epitaxy. Nano Lett, 2014, 14(8), 4542 doi: 10.1021/nl501565b
[71]	Wu J, Ramsay A, Sanchez A M, et al. Defect-free self-catalyzed GaAs/GaAsP nanowire quantum dots grown on silicon substrate. Nano Lett, 2016, 16(1), 504 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b04142
[72]	Isako Iv, Panfilova M, Sourribes M J L, et al. InAs_{1– x}P_x nanowires grown by catalyst-free molecular-beam epitaxy. Nanotechnology, 2013, 24(8), 085707 doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/24/8/085707
[73]	Lee J H, Pin M W, Choi S J, et al. Electromechanical properties and spontaneous response of the current in inasp nanowires. Nano Lett, 2016, 16(11), 6738 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b02155
[74]	Persson A I, Björk M T, Jeppesen S, et al. InAs_{1– x}P_x nanowires for device engineering. Nano Lett, 2006, 6(3), 403 doi: 10.1021/nl052181e
[75]	Trägårdh J, Persson A I, Wagner J B, et al. Measurements of the band gap of wurtzite InAs_{1– x}P_x nanowires using photocurrent spectroscopy. J Appl Phys, 2007, 101(12), 123701 doi: 10.1063/1.2745289
[76]	Tchernycheva M, Cirlin G E, Patriarche G, et al. Growth and characterization of InP nanowires with InAsP insertions. Nano Lett, 2007, 7(6), 1500 doi: 10.1021/nl070228l
[77]	Cirlin G E, Tchernycheva M, Patriarche G, et al. Effect of postgrowth heat treatment on the structural and optical properties of InP/InAsP/InP nanowires. Semiconductors, 2012, 46(2), 175 doi: 10.1134/S1063782612020224
[78]	Ma L, Zhang X, Li H, et al. Bandgap-engineered GaAsSb alloy nanowires for near-infrared photodetection at 1.31 μm. Semicond Sci Technol, 2015, 30(10), 105033 doi: 10.1088/0268-1242/30/10/105033
[79]	Huh J, Yun H, Kim D C, et al. Rectifying single GaAsSb nanowire devices based on self-induced compositional gradients. Nano Lett, 2015, 15(6), 3709 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b00089
[80]	Ren D, Huh J, Dheeraj D L, et al. Influence of pitch on the morphology and luminescence properties of self-catalyzed GaAsSb nanowire arrays. Appl Phys Lett, 2016, 109, 243102 doi: 10.1063/1.4971984
[81]	Yu X, Li L, Wang H, et al. Two-step fabrication of self-catalyzed Ga-based semiconductor nanowires on Si by molecular-beam epitaxy. Nanoscale, 2016, 8, 10615 doi: 10.1039/C5NR07830J
[82]	Ahmad E, Karim M R, Hafiz S B, et al. A two-step growth pathway for high Sb incorporation in GaAsSb nanowires in the telecommunication wavelength range. Sci Rep, 2017, 7, 10111 doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-09280-4
[83]	Sharma M, Karim M R, Kasanaboina P, et al. Pitch-induced bandgap tuning in self-catalyzed growth of patterned GaAsSb axial and GaAs/GaAsSb core-shell nanowires using molecular beam epitaxy. Cryst Growth Des, 2017, 17(2), 730 doi: 10.1021/acs.cgd.6b01577
[84]	Alarcon-Llado E, Conesa-Boj S, Wallart X, et al. Raman spectroscopy of self-catalyzed GaAs_{1– x}Sb_x nanowires grown on silicon. Nanotechnology, 2013, 24(40), 405707 doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/24/40/405707
[85]	Conesa-Boj S, Kriegner D, Han X, et al. Gold-free ternary III–V antimonide nanowire arrays on silicon: twin-free down to the first bilayer. Nano Lett, 2014, 14(1), 326 doi: 10.1021/nl404085a
[86]	Plissard S, Dick K A. WallartS, et al Gold-free GaAs/GaAsSb heterostructure nanowires grown on silicon. Appl Phys Lett, 2010, 96, 121901 doi: 10.1063/1.3367746
[87]	Alhodaib A, Noori Y J, Carrington P J, et al. Room-temperature mid-infrared emission from faceted InAsSb multi quantum wells embedded in InAs nanowires. Nano Lett, 2018, 18(1), 235 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b03977
[88]	Du W N, Yang X G, Wang X Y, et al. The self-seeded growth of InAsSb nanowires on silicon by metal-organic vapour phase epitaxy. J Cryst Growth, 2014, 396, 33 doi: 10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2014.03.020
[89]	Anyebe E A, Zhang Q. Self-catalysed InAs_{1– x}Sb_x nanowires grown directly on bare Si substrates. Mater Res Bull, 2014, 60, 572 doi: 10.1016/j.materresbull.2014.09.028
[90]	Zhang Q D, Anyebe E A, Chen R, et al. Sb-induced phase control of InAsSb nanowires grown by molecular beam epitaxy. Nano Lett, 2015, 15(2), 1109 doi: 10.1021/nl5040946
[91]	Du W, Yang X, Pan H, et al. Two different growth mechanisms for Au-free InAsSb nanowires growth on Si substrate. Cryst Growth Des, 2015, 15(5), 2413 doi: 10.1021/acs.cgd.5b00201
[92]	Du W, Yang X, Pan H, et al. Controlled-direction growth of planar InAsSb nanowires on Si substrates without foreign catalysts. Nano Lett, 2016, 16(2), 877 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03587
[93]	Zhuang Q D, Alradhi H, Jin Z M, et al. Optically efficient InAsSb nanowires for silicon-based mid-wavelength infrared optoelectronics. Nanotechnology, 2017, 28(10), 105710 doi: 10.1088/1361-6528/aa59c5
[94]	Anyebe E A, Rajpalke M K, Veal T D, et al. Surfactant effect of antimony addition to the morphology of self-catalyzed InAs_{1– x}Sb_x nanowires. Nano Res, 2015, 8(4), 1309 doi: 10.1007/s12274-014-0621-x
[95]	Thompson M D, Alhodaib A, Craig A P, et al. Low Leakage-current InAsSb nanowire photodetectors on silicon. Nano Lett, 2016, 16(1), 182 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03449
[96]	Cirlin G E, Reznik R R, Shtrom I V, et al. AlGaAs and AlGaAs/GaAs/AlGaAs nanowires grown by molecular beam epitaxy on silicon substrates. J Phys D, 2017, 50(48), 484003 doi: 10.1088/1361-6463/aa9169
[97]	Tambe M J, Lim S K, Smith M J, et al. Realization of defect-free epitaxial core/shell GaAs/AlGaAs nanowire heterostructures. Appl Phys Lett, 2008, 93, 151917 doi: 10.1063/1.3002299
[98]	Titova L V, Hoang T B, Jackson H E, et al. Temperature dependence of photoluminescence from single core–shell GaAs–AlGaAs nanowires. Appl Phys Lett, 2006, 89, 173126 doi: 10.1063/1.2364885
[99]	Hoang T B, Titova L V, Yarrison-Rice J M, et al. Resonant excitation and imaging of non-equilibrium exciton spins in single core-shell GaAs-AlGaAs nanowires. Nano Lett, 2007, 7(3), 588 doi: 10.1021/nl062383q
[100]	Koblmuüller G, Mayer B, Stettner T, et al. GaAs-AlGaAs core-shell nanowire lasers on silicon: invited review. Semicond Sci Technol, 2017, 32, 053001 doi: 10.1088/1361-6641/aa5e45
[101]	Saxena D, Mokkapati S, Parkinson P, et al. Optically pumped room-temperature GaAs nanowire lasers. Nat Photonics, 2013, 7, 963 doi: 10.1038/nphoton.2013.303
[102]	Heiss M, Fontana Y, Gustafsson A, et al. Self-assembled quantum dots in a nanowire system for quantum photonics. Nat Mater, 2013, 12, 439 doi: 10.1038/nmat3557
[103]	Chen C, Shehata S, Fradin C R , et al. Self-directed growth of AlGaAs core-shell nanowires for visible applications. Nano Lett, 2007, 7(9), 2584 doi: 10.1021/nl070874k
[104]	Wu Z H, Sun M, Mei X Y, et al. Growth and photoluminescence characteristics of AlGaAs nanowires. Appl Phys Lett, 2004, 85(4), 657 doi: 10.1063/1.1775037
[105]	Dubrovskii V G, Shtrom I V, Reznik R R, et al. Origin of spontaneous core-shell AlGaAs nanowires grown by molecular beam epitaxy. Crys Growth Des, 2016, 16(12), 7251 doi: 10.1021/acs.cgd.6b01412
[106]	Guo J, Hang H, Ding Y, et al. Growth of zinc blende GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructure nanowires on Si substrate by using AlGaAs buffer layers. J Cryst Growth, 2012, 359, 30 doi: 10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2012.07.047
[107]	Loitsch B, Winnerl J, Grimaldi G, et al. Crystal phase quantum dots in the ultrathin core of GaAs–AlGaAs core–shell nanowires. Nano Lett, 2015, 15(11), 7544 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03273
[108]	Dietrich C P, Fiore A, Thompson M G, et al. GaAs integrated quantum photonics: Towards compact and multi-functional quantum photonic integrated circuits. Laser Photonics Rev, 2016, 10(6), 870 doi: 10.1002/lpor.201500321
[109]	Chen R, Tran T T D, Ng K W, et al. Nanolasers grown on silicon. Nat Photonics, 2011, 5, 170 doi: 10.1038/nphoton.2010.315
[110]	Tatebayashi J, Kako S, Ho J, et al. Room-temperature lasing in a single nanowire with quantum dots. Nat Photonics, 2015, 9, 501 doi: 10.1038/nphoton.2015.111
[111]	Hou J J, Wang F, Han N, et al. Stoichiometric effect on electrical, optical and structural properties of composition-tunable In_xGa_{1– x}As nanowires. ACS Nano, 2012, 6(10), 9320 doi: 10.1021/nn304174g
[112]	Shin J C, Kim D Y, Lee A, et al. Improving the composition uniformity of Au-catalyzed InGaAs nanowires on silicon. J Cryst Growth, 2013, 372, 15 doi: 10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2013.02.025
[113]	Shin J C, Kim K H, Hu H, et al. Monolithically grown In_xGa_{1– x}As nanowire array on silicon tandem solar cells with high efficiency. IEEE Photonic Society 24th Annual Meeting, 2011
[114]	Shin J C, Kim K H, Yu K J, et al. In_xGa_{1– x}As nanowires on silicon: one-dimensional heterogeneous epitaxy, bandgap engineering, and photovoltaics. Nano Lett, 2011, 11(11), 4831 doi: 10.1021/nl202676b
[115]	Treu J, Speckbacher M, Saller K, et al. Widely tunable alloy composition and crystal structure in catalyst-free InGaAs nanowire arrays grown by selective area molecular beam epitaxy. Appl Phys Lett, 2016, 108(5), 053110 doi: 10.1063/1.4941407
[116]	Morkötter S, Funk S, Liang M, et al. Role of microstructure on optical properties in high-uniformity In_xGa_{1– x}As nanowire arrays: Evidence of a wider wurtzite band gap. Phys Rev B, 2013, 87, 205303 doi: 10.1103/PhysRevB.87.205303
[117]	Berg A, Yazdi S, Nowzari A, et al. Radial nanowire light-emitting diodes in the (Al_xGa_{1– x})_yIn_{1– y}P material system. Nano Lett, 2016, 16(1), 656 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b04401
[118]	Kivisaari P, Berg A, Karimi M, et al. Optimization of current injection in AlGaInP core-shell nanowire light-emitting diodes. Nano Lett, 2017, 17(6), 3599 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b00759
[119]	Li X, Shi T, Liu G, et al. Absorption enhancement of GaInP nanowires by tailoring transparent shell thicknesses and its application in III–V nanowire/Si film two-junction solar cells. Opt Express, 2015, 23(19), 25316 doi: 10.1364/OE.23.025316
[120]	Amiri S E H, Ranga P, Li D Y, et al. Growth of InGaP alloy nanowires with widely tunable bandgaps on silicon substrates. Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics, 2017
[121]	Tatebayashi J, Lin A, Wong P S, et al. Visible light emission from self-catalyzed GaInP/GaP core-shell double heterostructure nanowires on silicon. J Appl Phys, 2010, 108, 034315 doi: 10.1063/1.3457355
[122]	Fakhr A, Haddara Y M, LaPierre R R. Dependence of InGaP nanowire morphology and structure on molecular beam epitaxy growth conditions. Nanotechnology, 2010, 21(16), 165601 doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/21/16/165601
[123]	Jacobsson D, Persson J M, Kriegner D, et al. Particle-assisted Ga_xIn_{1– x}P nanowire growth for designed bandgap structures. Nanotechnology, 2012, 23(24), 245601 doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/23/24/245601
[124]	Berg A, Caroff P, Shahid N, et al. Growth and optical properties of In_xGa_{1– x}P nanowires synthesized by selective-area epitaxy. Nano Res, 2017, 10(2), 672 doi: 10.1007/s12274-016-1325-1
[125]	Otnes G, Heurlin M, Zeng X L, et al. In_xGa _1–_xP nanowire growth dynamics strongly affected by doping using diethylzinc. Nano Lett, 2017, 17(2), 702 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b03795
[126]	Ghalamestani S G, Ek M, Gamjipour B, et al. Demonstration of defect-free and composition tunable Ga_xIn_{1– x}Sb nanowires. Nano Lett, 2012, 12(9), 4914 doi: 10.1021/nl302497r
[127]	Zhou H, Pozuelo M, Hicks R F, et al. Self-catalyzed vapour-liquid-solid growth of InP_{1– x}Sb_x nanostructures. J Cryst Growth, 2011, 319, 25 doi: 10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2011.01.036
[128]	Russell H B, Andriotis A N, Menon M, et al. Direct band gap gallium antimony phosphide (GaSb_xP_{1– x}) alloys. Sci Rep, 2016, 6, 20822 doi: 10.1038/srep20822
[129]	Gagliano L, Kruijsse M, Schefold J D D, et al. Efficient green emission from wurtzite Al_xIn_{1– x}P nanowires. Nano Lett, 2018, 18(6), 3543 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b00621
[130]	Mayer B, Rudolph D, Schnell J, et al. Lasing from individual GaAs–AlGaAs core–shell nanowires up to room temperature. Nat Commun, 2013, 4, 2931 doi: 10.1038/ncomms3931
[131]	Birowosuto M D, Yokoo A, Zhang G, et al. Movable high-Q nanoresonators realized by semiconductor nanowires on a Si photonic crystal platform. Nat Mater, 2014, 13, 279 doi: 10.1038/nmat3873
[132]	Ren D, Ahtapodov L, Nilsen J S, et al. Single-mode near-infrared lasing in a GaAsSb-based nanowire superlattice at room temperature. Nano Lett, 2018, 18(4), 2304 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b05015
[133]	Stettner T, Thurn A, Döblinger M, et al. Tuning lasing emission toward long wavelengths in GaAs-(In,Al)GaAs core-multishell nanowires. Nano Lett, 2018, 18(10), 6292 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b02503
[134]	Kim H, Lee W J, Farrell A C, et al. Telecom-wavelength bottom-up nanobeam lasers on silicon-on-insulator. Nano Lett, 2017, 17, 5244 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b01360
[135]	Kim H, Farrell A C, Senanayake P, et al. Monolithically integrated InGaAs nanowires on 3D structured silicon-on-insulator as a new platform for full optical links. Nano Lett, 2016, 16, 1833 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b04883
[136]	Lee W J, Kim H, You J B, et al. Ultracompact bottom-up photonic crystal lasers on silicon-on-insulator. Sci Rep, 2017, 7, 9543 doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-10031-8
[137]	Zhang Y, Liu H. Nanowires for high-efficiency, low-cost solar photovoltaics. Crystals, 2019, 9(2), 87 doi: 10.3390/cryst9020087
[138]	Lin R, Galan S V, Sun H, et al. Tapering-induced enhancement of light extraction efficiency of nanowire deep ultraviolet LED by theoretical simulations. Photonics Res, 2018, 6(5), 457 doi: 10.1364/PRJ.6.000457
[139]	Zhang Y, Sanchez A M, Aagesen M, et al. Growth and fabrication of high-quality single nanowire devices with radial p–i–n junctions. Small, 2019, 15(3), 1803684 doi: 10.1002/smll.201803684
[140]	Holm J V, Jørgensen H I, Krogstrup P, et al. Surface-passivated GaAsP single-nanowire solar cells exceeding 10% efficiency grown on silicon. Nat Commun, 2013, 4, 1498 doi: 10.1038/ncomms2510
[141]	Hou J J, Wang F, Han N, et al. Diameter dependence of electron mobility in InGaAs nanowires. Appl Phys Lett, 2013, 102(9), 093112 doi: 10.1063/1.4794414
[142]	Kilpi O P, Svensson J, Wu J, et al. Vertical InAs/InGaAs heterostructure metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors on Si. Nano Lett, 2017, 17(10), 6006 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b02251

Fig. 1. (a)–(c) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of InAsSb/GaSb core/shell NWs grown via MOCVD following SAG mode. The arrays of the grown NWs have a high level of homogeneity. NWs were grown with different Sb compositions, as indicated in each image. (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [34]. Copyright (2016) American Chemical Society.)

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 2. (Color online) (a) Droplet is deposited on the Si substrate. (b) Elements are supplied in the reactor. The adatoms are alloyed with the liquid droplet and, after supersaturation, a monolayer is formed covering the liquid/solid interface. (c) The continuous supply of elements leads to the elongation of the NW. The adatoms reach the droplet either via direct impingement or after diffusion on the substrate and the NW sidewalls. (d) After the supply of elements is terminated, the axial growth stops.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 3. (Color online) (a) Top view and (b) front view schematic representations respectively for a GaAs NW cladded with a 20 nm thick AlInAs shell. The strain that is induced by the lattice mismatch between the core and the shell causes a severe bending of the NW. The convex side is more appropriate for adatom accommodation, further increasing this phenomenon. (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [59]. Copyright (2018) American Chemical Society.)

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 4. (Color online) (a) SEM image of GaAsP NWs grown under V/III ratio of 50. Uniformity and vertically aligned NWs are observed. (b) SEM image of GaAsP NWs grown under V/III ratio of 75. The growth rate is reduced due to shrinkage of the droplet, causing a severe tapering in the NWs. (c) SEM image of GaAsP NWs grown under V/III ratio of 100. Large group V flux rapidly consumes the droplets and no VLS growth takes place. (d) Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) image of the overall and section views of a NW grown under V/III ratio of 50. In the middle of the structure, no defects are observed and the crystal adopts a pure ZB phase. The only defects are located at the top and bottom parts of the NW. The SAED pattern, a higher magnification on the droplet and a higher magnification of the part indicated by the white arrows are given in the insets. (e) A TEM image of a NW grown under V/III ratio of 75. Multiple defects are viewed in the image due to the increased flux of group V elements. The defects appear as regions of different brightness and three typical examples are shown with black arrows. (Figs. 4(a)–4(e): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [69]. Copyright (2013) American Chemical Society.) (f) UV visible diffuse reflectance spectrum (absorption) of both narrow NWs (dashed line) and wide NWs (solid line) at different P contents. (g) Dependence of the bandgap on the nominal composition of P, for narrow and wide NWs. (Figs. 4(f)–4(g): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [68]. Copyright (2014) American Chemical Society.) (h) SEM of NWs grown on patterned substrate, where the diameter of the holes is 50 nm and is smaller than the diameter of the droplet. A highly homogeneous NW arrays is formed. In the inset, a higher magnification of a single NW is depicted, confirming the homogeneous shape of the structure. (i) SEM image of NWs grown on patterned substrate where the diameter of the holes is 135 nm. The promotion of lateral VS growth leads to the structures taking the form of short nanopillars, as viewed in the inset. (Figs. 4(h)–4(i): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [70]. Copyright (2014) American Chemical Society. Further permissions related to the material excerpted should be directed to the ACS.)

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 5. (Color online) (a) TEM image of a GaAs QD embedded in a GaAsP NW. The brighter region, revealing the presence of the dot, is marked by the red circle. (b) EDX mapping of the structure. The QD section exhibits a higher As and lower P content than the NW part of NWQDs. (c) Micro PL spectra at different excitation powers from a single GaAsP/GaAs NWQD. Sharp peaks attributed to QD emission are observed at 1.66 eV. The linewidth is measured as narrow as 130 μeV. (Figs. 5(a)–5(c): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [71]. Copyright (2015) American Chemical Society.)

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 6. (Color online) (a) SEM image of InAsP NWs tilted by 45°. The NWs are perpendicular to the Si substrate and their density is estimated at 5.5 × 10⁸ cm^–2. (b) Diameter distribution respectively for the InAsP NWs. High uniformity is confirmed. (c) High resolution TEM (HRTEM) of the middle part of an InAsP NW. Multiple stacking faults are observed. The inset presents the SAED pattern of this part. The streaky features confirm the formation of stacking faults. (d) HRTEM of the NW/Si interface. Misfit dislocations appear and are marked by yellow arrows in the image. In the inset the SAED pattern of the interface is shown. The clear spots reveal a pure ZB structure at the NW/Si interface, which leads to the conclusion of stacking faults being developed after the nucleation of the InAsP NWs at the initial stages of the growth. (Figs. 6(a)–6(d): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [21]. Copyright (2013) American Chemical Society.) (e) Micro-PL spectrum of a single InP NW with two InAsP QD insertions. The peaks corresponding to the QDs are located at 1.401 and 1.412 μm and are very sharp and narrow with a full width at half maximum of 120 μeV. The narrow peaks are indicative of the 3D quantum confinement induced by the QD insertions. (Fig. 6(e): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [76]. Copyright (2007) American Chemical Society.)

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 7. (Color online) (a)–(c) SEM images of NWs grown on patterned substrate with pitch lengths of 1200, 800 and 400 nm, respectively. The density of the NWs is significantly increased with decreasing length of the pitch. (d) PL spectra of NWs grown at different pitch lengths. Increasing size of the pitch leads to a redshift of the emission attributed to an increased presence of Sb in the NWs. That is in accordance with the Sb-richness induced by the increasing wetting angle of the droplet with enlarged holes. (Figs. 7(a)–7(d): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [83]. Copyright (2016) American Chemical Society.) (e)–(f) SEM images of GaAsSb NW arrays grown under Sb flux of 2 × 10^–7 and 8 × 10^–7 Torr, respectively. Increasing Sb flux, thus enhanced Sb content, leads to a significant increase in the diameter of the NWs. (g) Graph of the diameter and the length of the NWs as a function of the Sb flux. Increasing Sb flux causes an increase in the diameter of the NWs as a result of the surfactant effect and a reduction in the length of the structures as a result of the poisoning effect. (h) BF-TEM image of a GaAs NW with a GaAsSb segment embedded inside. The red square and the orange square mark the bottom and top part of the segment, respectively. (i) High Resolution TEM image of the red square of Fig. 7(h). The incorporation of Sb in the NW leads to a rapid WZ to ZB transition. (j) High Resolution TEM image of the orange square of Fig. 7(h). Beyond the length of the GaAsSb segment, the crystal phase transits back into WZ. (Figs. 7(e)–7(j): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [29]. Copyright (2016) American Chemical Society.)

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 8. (Color online) (a) Normalized PL spectra of GaAsSb NWs grown on Si substrates, with different Sb content. The measurements are taken at 77 K and the wavelength of the emission reaches 1480 nm. (b) Normalized PL spectra of GaAsSb NWs grown on GaAs stems, with different Sb content. The measurements are taken at 77 K and the wavelength of the emission reaches 1760 nm. (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [52]. Copyright (2017) American Chemical Society.)

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 9. (Color online) (a) SEM image of InAsSb NWs grown at 470 °C. The structures are vertically aligned on the (111)-oriented substrate. (b) SEM image of InAsSb NWs grown at 450 °C. The decreasing temperature forces the NWs to change orientation and elongate planar on the substrates. (Figs. 9(a) and 9(b): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [91]. Copyright (2015) American Chemical Society.) (c)–(f) High resolution TEM of catalyst free InAs(Sb) NWs grown via the catalyst-free method at different Sb content as indicated in the images. White arrows show the direction of the growth. Increasing Sb content leads to a transition from WZ dominant to pure ZB crystal phase due to the surfactant effect of Sb. (Figs. 9(c)–9(f): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [30]. Copyright (2014) American Chemical Society.) (g) PL spectra of InAsSb NWs with Sb content of 0, 3%, 10%, 16% and 19%, respectively. The shrinkage of the bandgap leads to peaks covering the entire mid-infrared region, reaching 0.23 eV. No QW-like peaks are noticed, due to the single crystallinity of the NWs. (Fig. 9(g): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [93]. Copyright (2017) IOP Publishing Ltd.)

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 10. (Color online) (a) SEM of an AlGaAs NW array grown on Si at 510 °C with a nominal composition of Al at 30%. (b) Cross sectional EDX scanning of an AlGaAs NW. The peaks of Al and dips of Ga at the external facets reveal the presence of an Al-rich shell. As expected, Arsenic is homogeneously distributed in the structure. (c) TEM image of a NW, revealing its inversed tapered shape. The darker colour of the shell reveals its higher percentage of Al. (Figs. 10(a)–10(c): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [105]. Copyright (2016) American Chemical Society.) (d) PL spectrum of GaAs QDs embedded in GaAs/AlGaAs core/shell NWs. Two peaks are exhibited, X and X* attributed to exciton and biexciton transition, respectively. The linewidths for X and X* are 315 and 458 μeV. (e) Second order correlation function of X, revealing antibunching behaviour and demonstrating the potential of the structure to act as a non-classical light source. (Figs. 10(d)–10(e): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [107]. Copyright (2015) American Chemical Society.)

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 11. (Color online) (a)–(h) SEM images of InGaAs NWs grown via MBE following SAG mode. The arrays of the grown NWs have a high level of homogeneity. NWs were grown at different temperatures with different Ga compositions, as indicated in each image. (i) Normalized micro PL spectra of InGaAs NWs grown at different Ga composition. A wide range of tuning is accomplished. (Figs. 11(a)–11(i): Reprinted from Ref. [115] with the permission of AIP publishing.) (j) Optical image of a Si (111) wafer with InGaAs NWs grown. The slight variations in the NW density are demonstrated by the colour variations in the image. (k) and (l) SEM images for InGaAs NWs with 15% and 70% In content grown at 570 and 590 °C, respectively. Increased composition of In causes an increase in the diameter of the NWs, due to its incorporation at the external facets. (m) Micro-PL spectrum of an InGaAs NW array, with 20% In depicted as a black line. The red line corresponds to a similar array with the addition of a GaAs shell. The passivation of surface states by the shell leads to a considerable increase of the PL intensity. (Figs. 11(j)–11(m): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [114]. Copyright (2011) American Chemical Society.)

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 12. (Color online) (a)–(f) SEM images of InGaP NWs grown on InP substrates. The different temperatures of the growth are noted in the images. It is observed that low growth temperatures led to shorter NWs and promoted radial overgrowth (Fig. 12(a)), while increasing temperatures induced the formation of highly homogeneous arrays of perpendicular NWs (Figs. 12(b)–12(d)). Further increase above 750 °C in temperature led to compositional inhomogeneity that induced strain in the structures and ultimately caused their bending and non-vertical orientation (Figs. 12(e)–12(f)). (g) CL spectra of InGaP NWs grown with different Ga composition. A blueshift related to the increased Ga content is presented with increasing flow ratio. After a critical point, polyrcrystals were formed instead of NWs. The shortest wavelength for standing NWs in this work was 799 nm, while the highest was obtained for InP NWs at 871 nm. (Figs. 12(a)–12(g): Reprinted by permission from Springer Nature: Nano Research, Ref. [124]. Copyright (2017).) (i) Graph of the In content as a function of the diethylzinc molar fraction. It is clear that increasing presence of diethylzinc leads to a rapid reduction in the In composition of the structure. (j) EDS line scanning of an InGaP NW with consequent i- and p- regions. Ga peaks at the doped regions reveal increased presence of this element and confirm that the presence of diethylzinc causes a reduction in the In content and a subsequent increase in the Ga content. (Figs. 12(h) and 12(i): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [125]. Copyright (2017) American Chemical Society.)

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 13. (Color online) (a) Schematics of the InGaSb NW, showing the three different segments (InAs stem, InSb stem, InGaSb segment) of the structure. (b) SEM image of the wire-on-stem structures, clearly exhibiting differences in the diameter, between the consecutive segments. The scale bar is 200 nm. (c) EDX axial scanning of the NW. The InGaSb regions correspond with the increase in the Ga line (red). This segment is revealed to be Ga-rich, with approximately 60% Ga content. The scale bar is 100 nm. (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [126]. Copyright (2012) American Chemical Society.)

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 14. (Color online) (a) SEM image of an AlInP NW array, demonstrating a high degree of morphological homogeneity. (b)–(d) High magnification SEM images of a WZ InP NW and two WZ AlInP NWs with Al content at 15% and 25%, respectively. Increasing Al content leads to a transition of the initial, hexagonal cross section to a more complex dodecagonal form, potentially due to the alterations of V/III ratio and elemental composition. (e) PL spectra of AlInP NW ensembles. Increasing Al content induces a blue shift of the peak towards the green region of the spectrum. For 0–40% Al, emission covers the range between 875 and 555 nm (infrared to green region). (Figs. 14(a)–14(e): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [129]. Copyright (2018) American Chemical Society. Further permissions related to the material excerpted should be directed to the ACS.)

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 15. (Color online) (a) PL spectra at room temperature for different excitation powers. The insets show a PL spectrum of FP modes below lasing threshold under a pump power density of 1.88 kW/cm² (left) and a lasing peak with a linewidth of 0.76 nm (right). (b) PL specra of three different samples with Sb compositions of 1%, 5% and 8% for samples A, B and C, respectively. Increasing Sb presence leads to a redshift of the lasing peak enabling tunability between 890 and 990 nm. (Figs. 15(a) and 15(b): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [132]. Copyright (2018) American Chemical Society.) (c) Lasing from an InGaAs nanopillars surrounded by GaAs shell, at 950 nm. The device operated up to room temperature (293 K). (d) PL spectra from InGaAs/GaAs core/shell nanopillars exhibiting lasing at different wavelengths as a function of the nominal composition of In. The In content of the core was varied between 12% and 20% leading to a control of lasing between 890 and 940 nm. (Figs. 15(c) and 15(d): Reprinted by permission from Springer Nature: Nat Photonics, Ref. [109]. Copyright (2011).) (e) Cross-sectional TEM image of a GaAs/(In,Al)GaAs core/shell NW with InGaAs QWs embedded in the shell. (f) PL spectra of the structure of Fig. 15(e) at 10 K, exhibiting lasing with tunability from 1.36 to 1.57 eV for In composition ranging between 0 and 40%. (g) Similar spectra at room temperature exhibiting tunability up to 30% In content. (Figs. 15(e)–15(g): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [133]. Copyright (2018) American Chemical Society.) (h) PL spectra from InGaAs NW grown on SOI exhibiting tuneable emission, covering 1.33 and 1.51 μm telecommunication windows via tuning of their In composition. (Fig. 15(h): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [135]. Copyright (2016) American Chemical Society.)

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 16. (Color online) (a) SEM of a GaAsP NW solar cell with InGaAs passivation layer. The scale bar is 1 μm. (b) P–V comparison between the passivated (red) and the unpassivated (blue) GaAsP NWs. The power reaches a maximum of 10.2 mW/cm² for the passivated NWs while remaining at 6.8 mW/cm² for unpassivated NWs. (Figs. 16(a) and 16(b): Reprinted with permission by Springer Nature: Nature Communications, Ref. [140]. Copyright (2013)) (c) Schematics of photovoltaic solar cell structures based on InGaAs/AlInAs NWs on Si. (d) I–V curve in dark for InGaAs/AlInAs NWs showing a clear rectifying, diode-like behaviour. The ideality factor is extracted as 2.5. (e) Comparison of the I–V curves in dark and under illumination for passivated and unpassivated NWs. The curve of the unpassivated NWs exhibits S-shape behaviour, indicative of losses and low efficiency, which is absent from core/shell NWs. (Figs. 16(c)–16(e): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [20]. Copyright (2015) American Chemical Society. Further permissions related to this material excerpted should be directed to the ACS.) (f) I–V curve of solar cells based on InAsP NWs. Clear diode, rectifying behaviour is exhibited. The ideality factor is small at 1.4 and comparable to the up-to-date NW solar cell technologies. (Fig. 16(f): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [21]. Copyright (2013) American Chemical Society.)

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 17. (Color online) (a) Schematics of the GaAsP NW, showing the growth of the p-type core and n-type shell, with an intrinsic shell between the two. (b) Schematics of a water splitting device consisted of a NW array grown on Si substrates. (c) Current density potential characteristics of GaAsP homojunction NWs photocathode. (d) Current density potential characteristics of GaAsP NWs photocathode with the addition of an InGaAs passivation shell. The insets in Figs. 17(c)–17(d) show the steady-state current density of the photocathodes. The measurements were conducted at 0.1 V versus RHE under AM 1.5G illumination. (Figs. 17(a)–17(d): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [22]. Copyright (2014) American Chemical Society. Further permissions related to the material excerpted should be directed to the ACS.)

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 18. (Color online) (a) SEM image of a single GaAsSb NW-based device with four metal electrodes. The scale bar is 500 nm. (b) I–V curve of a single GaAsSb NW in four-probe geometry (A–D). Probe A is close to the tip and D is close to the base as viewed in the SEM image of Fig. 18(a). Rectifying behaviour is clearly observed in all configurations (with the C–D measurement closer to the base being more pronounced). (c) I–V curves under different illuminations of the photodetector fabricated by GaAsSb NWs that gave the measurements of Fig. 18(b). The rectifying behaviour observed is a result of the asymmetric Schottky contacts formed at the NW ends. The inset shows the photocurrent as a function of the intensity of illumination. The photoresponsivity is calculated as 1463 A/W. (Figs. 18(a)–18(c): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [79]. Copyright (2015) American Chemical Society.). (d) Schematics of a photodetector based on an array of GaAsSb/AlGaAs core/shell NWs. (e) I–V curves of the photodetector of Fig. 18(d) under different illuminations. Rectifying behaviour indicates the existence of asymmetric Schottky contacts at both NW ends. (f) I–V curve of the device of Fig. 18(d). The photocurrent has a high value at forward bias, due to previous NW annealing. The stimulated fit is depicted by the red line. (Figs. 18(d)–18(f): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [28]. Copyright (2018) IOP Publishing Ltd.)

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 19. (Color online) (a) SEM (top) and schematics (bottom) of a back-gated FET with metal contacts based on a single InGaAs NW. (b) Transfer characteristics of the FET of Fig. 19(a) for different V_DS. The inset depicts the statistics of the I_ON/I_OFF ratio of 100 such devices. (Figs. 19(a) and 19(b): Reprinted with permission from Ref. [32]. Copyright (2012) American Chemical Society.) (c) Transfer characteristics of three back-gated FETs based on single In_0.7Ga_0.3As NWs with three different diameters. Smaller NWs present reduced electron transport and mobility. (Fig. 19(c): Reprinted Ref. [141] with the permission of AIP publishing.) (d) Surround-gated FET comprised of a parallel array of 10 InGaAs NWs. Each NW is composed of a Si-doped InGaAs on top of an undoped InGaAs NW. Each NW is wrapped with Hf_0.8Al_0.2O gate oxide and tungsten (W) gate metal. L_G is 200 nm and L_G-D is 50 nm. (e) Capacitance-gate voltage curve of the surround gated FET of Fig. 19(d), with 250 parallel NWs. The inset shows the SEM of a representative structure. (f) Transfer characteristics of a surround-gated FET based on InGaAs NWs. The values of different parameters are included in the figure. (Figs. 19(d)–19(f): Reprinted by permission from Springer Nature: Nature, Ref. [31]. Copyright (2012).)

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 20. (Color online) (a)–(c) Tables including III–V–V, III–III–V and rare alloys, respectively, encapsulating the bandgap, growth methods, basic properties and device implementation of the ternary III–V NWs described throughout the current paper.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

[1]	Tong Q Y, Gösele U. Semiconductor wafer bonding, science and technology. John Wiley & Sons, 1999, 204
[2]	Palit S, Kirch J, Huang M, et al. Facet-embedded thin-film III–V edge-emitting lasers integrated with SU-8 waveguides on silicon. Opt Lett, 2010, 35(20), 3474 doi: 10.1364/OL.35.003474
[3]	Palit S, Kirch J, Tsvid G, et al. Low-threshold thin-film III–V lasers bonded to silicon with front and back side defined features. Opt Lett, 2009, 34(18), 2802 doi: 10.1364/OL.34.002802
[4]	Bogdanov M V, Bulashevich K A, Khokhlev O V, et al. Current crowding effect on light extraction efficiency of thin-film LEDs. Phys Stat Solidi C, 2010, 7(7/8), 2124 doi: 10.1002/pssc.200983415
[5]	Wierer J J Jr, David A, Megens M M. III-nitride photonic-crystal light-emitting diodes with high extraction efficiency. Nat Photonics, 2009, 3, 163 doi: 10.1038/nphoton.2009.21
[6]	Pouladi S, Rathi M, Khatiwada D, et al. High-efficiency flexible III–V photovoltaic solar cells based on single-crystal-like thin films directly grown on metallic tapes. Prog Photovolt Res Appl, 2019, 27, 30 doi: 10.1002/pip.3070
[7]	Tanabe K. A review of ultrahigh efficiency III–V semiconductor compound solar cells: multijunction tandem, lower dimensional. photonic up/down conversion and plasmonic nanometallic structures. Energy, 2009, 2, 504 doi: 10.3390/en20300695
[8]	Yokohama M, Yasuda T, Takagi H, et al. Thin body III–V semiconductor-on-insulator metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors on Si fabicated using direct wafer bonding. Appl Phys Express, 2009, 2, 124501 doi: 10.1143/APEX.2.124501
[9]	Ye P D. Main determinants for III–V metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors. J Vac Sci Technol A, 2008, 26(4), 697 doi: 10.1116/1.2905246
[10]	Dubrovskii V G. Theory of VLS growth of compound semiconductors, semiconductors and semimetals. Chapter 1. Elsevier Inc, 2015, 93
[11]	Bolkhovityanov Y B, Pchelyakov O P. GaAs epitaxy on Si substrates: modern status of research and engineering. Phys Usp, 2008, 51(5), 437 doi: 10.1070/PU2008v051n05ABEH006529
[12]	Wang T, Liu H, Lee A, et al. 1.3-μm InAs/GaAs quantum-dot lasers monolithically grown on Si substrates. Opt Express, 2011, 19(12), 11381 doi: 10.1364/OE.19.011381
[13]	Chang E Y, Yang T H, Luo G, et al. A GeSi-buffer structure for growth of high-quality GaAs epitaxial layers on a Si substrate. J Electron Mater, 2005, 34(1), 23 doi: 10.1007/s11664-005-0175-5
[14]	Fitzgerald E A, Xie Y H, Green M L, et al. Totally relaxed Ge_xSi_{1– x} layers with low threading dislocation densities grown on Si substrates. Appl Phys Lett, 1991, 59, 811 doi: 10.1063/1.105351
[15]	Dixit V K, Ganguli T, Sharma T K, et al. Studies on MOVPE growth of GaP epitaxial layer on Si (001) substrate and effects of annealing. J Cryst Growth, 2006, 293(1), 5 doi: 10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2006.03.060
[16]	Komatsu Y, Hosotani K, Fuyuki T, et al. Heteroepitaxial growth of InGaP on Si with InGaP/GaP step-graded buffer layers. Jpn J Appl Phys, 1997, 36, 5425 doi: 10.1143/JJAP.36.5425
[17]	Tsuji T, Yonezu H, Ohshima N. Selective epitaxial growth of GaAs on Si with strained short-period superlattices by molecular beam epitaxy under atomic hydrogen irradiation. J Vac Sci Technol B, 2004, 22(3), 1428 doi: 10.1116/1.1736634
[18]	Gösele U, Bluhm Y, Kastner G, et al. Fundamental issues in wafer bonding. J Vac Sci Technol A, 1999, 17(4), 1145 doi: 10.1116/1.581788
[19]	Mårtensson T, Svensson C P T, Wacaser B A, et al. Epitaxial III–V nanowires on silicon. Nano Lett, 2004, 4(10), 1987 doi: 10.1021/nl0487267
[20]	Treu J, Stettner T, Watzinger M, et al. Lattice-matched InGaAs−InAlAs core−shell nanowires with improved luminescence and photoresponse properties. Nano Lett, 2015, 15(5), 3533 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b00979
[21]	Shin J C, Lee A, Mohseni P K, et al. Wafer-scale production of uniform InAs_yP_{1– y} nanowire array on silicon for heterogeneous integration. ACS Nano, 2013, 7(6), 5463 doi: 10.1021/nn4014774
[22]	Wu J, Li Y, Kubota J, et al. Wafer-scale fabrication of self-catalyzed 1.7 eV GaAsP core−shell nanowire photocathode on silicon substrates. Nano Lett, 2014, 14(4), 2013 doi: 10.1021/nl500170m
[23]	Saxena D, Jiang N, Yuan X, et al. Design and room-temperature operation of GaAs/AlGaAs multiple quantum well nanowire lasers. Nano Lett, 2016, 16(8), 5080 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b01973
[24]	Stettner T, Zimmermann P, Loitsch B, et al. Coaxial GaAs–AlGaAs core-multishell nanowire lasers with epitaxial gain control. Appl Phys Lett, 2016, 108, 011108 doi: 10.1063/1.4939549
[25]	Tomioka K, Motohisa J, Hara S, et al. GaAs/AlGaAs core multishell nanowire-based light-emitting diodes on Si. Nano Lett, 2010, 10(5), 1639 doi: 10.1021/nl9041774
[26]	Svensson C P T, Mårtensson T, Trägårdh J, et al. Monolithic GaAs/InGaP nanowire light emitting diodes on silicon. Nanotechnology, 2008, 19, 305201 doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/19/30/305201
[27]	Huh J, Kim D C, Munshi A M, et al. Low frequency noise in single GaAsSb nanowires with self-induced compositional gradients. Nanotechnology, 2016, 27, 385703 doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/27/38/385703
[28]	Sharma M, Ahmad E, Dev D, et al. Improved performance of GaAsSb/AlGaAs nanowire ensemble Schottky barrier based photodetector via in situ annealing. Nanotechnology, 2019, 30, 034005 doi: 10.1088/1361-6528/aae148
[29]	Ren D, Dheeraj D L, Jin C, et al. New insights into the origins of Sb-induced effects on self-catalyzed GaAsSb nanowire arrays. Nano Lett, 2016, 16(2), 1201 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b04503
[30]	Sourribes M J L, Isakov I, Panfilova M, et al. Mobility enhancement by sb-mediated minimisation of stacking fault density in InAs nanowires grown on silicon. Nano Lett, 2014, 14(3), 1643 doi: 10.1021/nl5001554
[31]	Tomioka K, Yoshimura M, Fukui T. A III–V nanowire channel on silicon for high-performance vertical transistors. Nature, 2012, 488, 189 doi: 10.1038/nature11293
[32]	Hou J J, Han N, Wang F, et al. Synthesis and characterizations of ternary ingaas nanowires by a two-step growth method for high-performance electronic devices. ACS Nano, 2012, 6(4), 3624 doi: 10.1021/nn300966j
[33]	Bengoechea-Encabo A, Barbagini F, Fernandez-Garrido S, et al. Understanding the selective area growth of GaN nanocolumns by MBE using Ti nanomasks. J Cryst Growth, 2011, 325(1), 89 doi: 10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2011.04.035
[34]	Ji X, Yang X, Du W, et al. Selective-area MOCVD growth and carrier-transport-type control of InAs(Sb)/GaSb core–shell nanowires. Nano Lett, 2016, 16(12), 7580 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b03429
[35]	Tomioka K. Selective-area growth of III–V nanowires and their applications. J Mater Res, 2011, 26(17), 2127 doi: 10.1557/jmr.2011.103
[36]	Tomioka K, Tanaka T, Hara S, et al. III–V nanowires on Si substrate: selective-area growth and device applications. IEEE J Sel Top Quantum Electron, 2011, 17(4), 1112 doi: 10.1109/JSTQE.2010.2068280
[37]	Yamano K, Kishino K. Selective area growth of InGaN-based nanocolumn LED crystals on AlN/Si substrates useful for integrated μ-LED fabrication. Appl Phys Lett, 2018, 112(9), 091105 doi: 10.1063/1.5022298
[38]	Kohen D, Tileli V, Cayron C, et al. Al catalyzed growth of silicon nanowires and subsequent in situ dry etching of the catalyst for photovoltaic application. Phys Status Solidi A, 2011, 208(11), 2676 doi: 10.1002/pssa.201127072
[39]	Wagner R S, Ellis W C. Vapor-liquid-solid mechanism of single-crystal growth. Appl Phys Lett, 1964, 4(5), 89 doi: 10.1063/1.1753975
[40]	Messing M E, Hillerich K, Johansson J, et al. The use of gold for fabrication of nanowire structures. Gold Bulletin, 2009, 42(3), 172 doi: 10.1007/BF03214931
[41]	Zhang Y, Wu J, Aagesen M, et al. III–V nanowires and nanowire optoelectronic devices. J Phys D, 2015, 48, 463001 doi: 10.1088/0022-3727/48/46/463001
[42]	Li N, Tan T Y, Gösele U. Transition region width of nanowire hetero- and pn-junctions grown using vapor–liquid–solid processes. Appl Phys A, 2008, 90, 591 doi: 10.1007/s00339-007-4376-z
[43]	Sarkar K, Palit M, Banerji P, et al. Silver catalyzed growth of In_xGa_{1– x}As nanowires on Si (001) by metal–organic chemical vapour deposition. CrystEngComm, 2015, 17, 8519 doi: 10.1039/C5CE01565K
[44]	Colombo C, Spirkoska D, Frimmer M, et al. Ga-assisted catalyst-free growth mechanism of GaAs nanowires by molecular beam epitaxy. Phys Rev B, 2008, 77, 155326 doi: 10.1103/PhysRevB.77.155326
[45]	Ghalamestani S G, Ek M, Ghasemi M, et al. Morphology and composition controlled Ga_xIn_{1– x}Sb nanowires: understanding ternary antimonide growth. Nanoscale, 2014, 6, 1086 doi: 10.1039/C3NR05079C
[46]	Berg A, Lenrick F, Vainorius N, et al. Growth parameter design for homogeneous material composition in ternary Ga_xIn_{1– x}P nanowires. Nanotechnology, 2015, 26, 435601 doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/26/43/435601
[47]	Dick K A, Bolinsson J, Borg B M, et al. Controlling the abruptness of axial heterojunctions in III–V nanowires: beyond the reservoir effect. Nano Lett, 2012, 12(6), 3200 doi: 10.1021/nl301185x
[48]	Motohisa J, Noborisaka J, Hara S, et al. Catalyst-free growth of semiconductor nanowires by selective area MOVPE. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2005, 772, 877 doi: 10.1063/1.1994386
[49]	Koblmuüller G, Abstreiter G. Growth and properties of InGaAs nanowires on silicon. Phys Status Solidi, 2013, 7(10), 11 doi: 10.1002/pssr.201308207
[50]	Shin J C, Choi K J, Kim D Y, et al. Characteristics of strain-induced In_xGa_{1– x}As nanowires grown on Si (111) substrates. Cryst Growth Des, 2012, 12, 2994 doi: 10.1021/cg300210h
[51]	Glas F. Critical dimensions for the plastic relaxation of strained axial heterostructures in free-standing nanowires. Phys Rev B, 2006, 74, 121302 doi: 10.1103/PhysRevB.74.121302
[52]	Li L, Pan D, Xue Y, et al. Near full-composition-range high-quality GaAs_{1– x}Sb_x nanowires grown by molecular beam epitaxy. Nano Lett, 2017, 17(2), 622 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b03326
[53]	van der Merwe J H. Misfit dislocations in epitaxy. Metall Mater Trans A, 2002, 33(8), 2475 doi: 10.1007/s11661-002-0369-x
[54]	Kavanagh K L. Misfit dislocations in nanowire heterostructures. Semicond Sci Technol, 2010, 25, 024006 doi: 10.1088/0268-1242/25/2/024006
[55]	de la Mata M, Magen C, Caroff P, et al. Atomic scale strain relaxation in axial semiconductor III–V nanowire heterostructures. Nano Lett, 2014, 14(11), 6614 doi: 10.1021/nl503273j
[56]	Grönqvist J, Søndergaard N, Boxberg F, et al. Strain in semiconductor core/shell nanowires. J Appl Phys, 2009, 106, 053508 doi: 10.1063/1.3207838
[57]	Ferrand D, Cibert J. Strain in crystalline core-shell nanowires. Eur Phys J: Appl Phys, 2014, 67(3), 30403 doi: 10.1051/epjap/2014140156
[58]	Gagliano L, Albani M, Verheijen M A, et al. Twofold origin of strain-induced bending in core-shell nanowires: the GaP/InGaP case. Nanotechnology, 2018, 29(31), 315703 doi: 10.1088/1361-6528/aac417
[59]	Lewis R B, Corfdir P, Kupers H, et al. nanowires bending over backward from strain partitioning in asymmetric core-shell heterostructures. Nano Lett, 2018, 18(4), 2343 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b05221
[60]	Kavanagh K L, Saveliev I, Blumin M, et al. Faster radial strain relaxation in InAs–GaAs core–shell heterowires. Appl Phys Lett, 2012, 111, 044301 doi: 10.1063/1.3684964
[61]	Dayeh S A, Tang W, Boioli F, et al. Direct measurement of coherency limits for strain relaxation in heteroepitaxial core/shell nanowires. Nano Lett, 2013, 13(5), 1869 doi: 10.1021/nl3022434
[62]	Gronqvist J, Sondergaard N, Boxberg F, et al. Strain in semiconductor core/shell nanowires. J Appl Phys, 2009, 106, 053508 doi: 10.1063/1.3207838
[63]	Biermanns A, Rieger T, Bussone G, et al. Axial strain in GaAs/InAs core–shell nanowires. Appl Phys Lett, 2013, 102, 043109 doi: 10.1063/1.4790185
[64]	Zeng H, Yu X, Fonseka H A, et al. Hybrid III–V/IV nanowires: high- quality Ge shell epitaxy on GaAs cores. Nano Lett, 2018, 18(10), 6397 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b02760
[65]	Tietjen J J, Amick J A. The preparation and properties of vapour-deposited epitaxial GaAs_{1– x}P_x using arsine and phosphine. J Electrochem Soc, 1966, 113, 724 doi: 10.1149/1.2424100
[66]	Priante G, Patriarche G, Oehler F, et al. Abrupt GaP/GaAs interfaces in self-catalyzed nanowires. Nano Lett, 2015, 15(9), 6036 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b02224
[67]	Halder N N, Kelrich A, Cohen S, et al. Pure wurtzite GaP nanowires grown on zincblende GaP substrates by selective area vapor liquid solid epitaxy. Nanotechnology, 2017, 28, 465603 doi: 10.1088/1361-6528/aa8b60
[68]	Im H S, Jung C S, Park K, et al. Band gap tuning of twinned GaAsP ternary nanowires. J Phys Chem C, 2014, 118(8), 4546 doi: 10.1021/jp500458j
[69]	Zhang Y, Aagesen M, Holm J V, et al. Self-catalyzed GaAsP nanowires grown on silicon substrates by solid-source molecular beam epitaxy. Nano Lett, 2013, 13(8), 3897 doi: 10.1021/nl401981u
[70]	Zhang Y, Wu J, Aagesen M, et al. Self-catalyzed ternary core-shell GaAsP nanowire arrays grown on patterned Si substrates by molecular beam epitaxy. Nano Lett, 2014, 14(8), 4542 doi: 10.1021/nl501565b
[71]	Wu J, Ramsay A, Sanchez A M, et al. Defect-free self-catalyzed GaAs/GaAsP nanowire quantum dots grown on silicon substrate. Nano Lett, 2016, 16(1), 504 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b04142
[72]	Isako Iv, Panfilova M, Sourribes M J L, et al. InAs_{1– x}P_x nanowires grown by catalyst-free molecular-beam epitaxy. Nanotechnology, 2013, 24(8), 085707 doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/24/8/085707
[73]	Lee J H, Pin M W, Choi S J, et al. Electromechanical properties and spontaneous response of the current in inasp nanowires. Nano Lett, 2016, 16(11), 6738 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b02155
[74]	Persson A I, Björk M T, Jeppesen S, et al. InAs_{1– x}P_x nanowires for device engineering. Nano Lett, 2006, 6(3), 403 doi: 10.1021/nl052181e
[75]	Trägårdh J, Persson A I, Wagner J B, et al. Measurements of the band gap of wurtzite InAs_{1– x}P_x nanowires using photocurrent spectroscopy. J Appl Phys, 2007, 101(12), 123701 doi: 10.1063/1.2745289
[76]	Tchernycheva M, Cirlin G E, Patriarche G, et al. Growth and characterization of InP nanowires with InAsP insertions. Nano Lett, 2007, 7(6), 1500 doi: 10.1021/nl070228l
[77]	Cirlin G E, Tchernycheva M, Patriarche G, et al. Effect of postgrowth heat treatment on the structural and optical properties of InP/InAsP/InP nanowires. Semiconductors, 2012, 46(2), 175 doi: 10.1134/S1063782612020224
[78]	Ma L, Zhang X, Li H, et al. Bandgap-engineered GaAsSb alloy nanowires for near-infrared photodetection at 1.31 μm. Semicond Sci Technol, 2015, 30(10), 105033 doi: 10.1088/0268-1242/30/10/105033
[79]	Huh J, Yun H, Kim D C, et al. Rectifying single GaAsSb nanowire devices based on self-induced compositional gradients. Nano Lett, 2015, 15(6), 3709 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b00089
[80]	Ren D, Huh J, Dheeraj D L, et al. Influence of pitch on the morphology and luminescence properties of self-catalyzed GaAsSb nanowire arrays. Appl Phys Lett, 2016, 109, 243102 doi: 10.1063/1.4971984
[81]	Yu X, Li L, Wang H, et al. Two-step fabrication of self-catalyzed Ga-based semiconductor nanowires on Si by molecular-beam epitaxy. Nanoscale, 2016, 8, 10615 doi: 10.1039/C5NR07830J
[82]	Ahmad E, Karim M R, Hafiz S B, et al. A two-step growth pathway for high Sb incorporation in GaAsSb nanowires in the telecommunication wavelength range. Sci Rep, 2017, 7, 10111 doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-09280-4
[83]	Sharma M, Karim M R, Kasanaboina P, et al. Pitch-induced bandgap tuning in self-catalyzed growth of patterned GaAsSb axial and GaAs/GaAsSb core-shell nanowires using molecular beam epitaxy. Cryst Growth Des, 2017, 17(2), 730 doi: 10.1021/acs.cgd.6b01577
[84]	Alarcon-Llado E, Conesa-Boj S, Wallart X, et al. Raman spectroscopy of self-catalyzed GaAs_{1– x}Sb_x nanowires grown on silicon. Nanotechnology, 2013, 24(40), 405707 doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/24/40/405707
[85]	Conesa-Boj S, Kriegner D, Han X, et al. Gold-free ternary III–V antimonide nanowire arrays on silicon: twin-free down to the first bilayer. Nano Lett, 2014, 14(1), 326 doi: 10.1021/nl404085a
[86]	Plissard S, Dick K A. WallartS, et al Gold-free GaAs/GaAsSb heterostructure nanowires grown on silicon. Appl Phys Lett, 2010, 96, 121901 doi: 10.1063/1.3367746
[87]	Alhodaib A, Noori Y J, Carrington P J, et al. Room-temperature mid-infrared emission from faceted InAsSb multi quantum wells embedded in InAs nanowires. Nano Lett, 2018, 18(1), 235 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b03977
[88]	Du W N, Yang X G, Wang X Y, et al. The self-seeded growth of InAsSb nanowires on silicon by metal-organic vapour phase epitaxy. J Cryst Growth, 2014, 396, 33 doi: 10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2014.03.020
[89]	Anyebe E A, Zhang Q. Self-catalysed InAs_{1– x}Sb_x nanowires grown directly on bare Si substrates. Mater Res Bull, 2014, 60, 572 doi: 10.1016/j.materresbull.2014.09.028
[90]	Zhang Q D, Anyebe E A, Chen R, et al. Sb-induced phase control of InAsSb nanowires grown by molecular beam epitaxy. Nano Lett, 2015, 15(2), 1109 doi: 10.1021/nl5040946
[91]	Du W, Yang X, Pan H, et al. Two different growth mechanisms for Au-free InAsSb nanowires growth on Si substrate. Cryst Growth Des, 2015, 15(5), 2413 doi: 10.1021/acs.cgd.5b00201
[92]	Du W, Yang X, Pan H, et al. Controlled-direction growth of planar InAsSb nanowires on Si substrates without foreign catalysts. Nano Lett, 2016, 16(2), 877 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03587
[93]	Zhuang Q D, Alradhi H, Jin Z M, et al. Optically efficient InAsSb nanowires for silicon-based mid-wavelength infrared optoelectronics. Nanotechnology, 2017, 28(10), 105710 doi: 10.1088/1361-6528/aa59c5
[94]	Anyebe E A, Rajpalke M K, Veal T D, et al. Surfactant effect of antimony addition to the morphology of self-catalyzed InAs_{1– x}Sb_x nanowires. Nano Res, 2015, 8(4), 1309 doi: 10.1007/s12274-014-0621-x
[95]	Thompson M D, Alhodaib A, Craig A P, et al. Low Leakage-current InAsSb nanowire photodetectors on silicon. Nano Lett, 2016, 16(1), 182 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03449
[96]	Cirlin G E, Reznik R R, Shtrom I V, et al. AlGaAs and AlGaAs/GaAs/AlGaAs nanowires grown by molecular beam epitaxy on silicon substrates. J Phys D, 2017, 50(48), 484003 doi: 10.1088/1361-6463/aa9169
[97]	Tambe M J, Lim S K, Smith M J, et al. Realization of defect-free epitaxial core/shell GaAs/AlGaAs nanowire heterostructures. Appl Phys Lett, 2008, 93, 151917 doi: 10.1063/1.3002299
[98]	Titova L V, Hoang T B, Jackson H E, et al. Temperature dependence of photoluminescence from single core–shell GaAs–AlGaAs nanowires. Appl Phys Lett, 2006, 89, 173126 doi: 10.1063/1.2364885
[99]	Hoang T B, Titova L V, Yarrison-Rice J M, et al. Resonant excitation and imaging of non-equilibrium exciton spins in single core-shell GaAs-AlGaAs nanowires. Nano Lett, 2007, 7(3), 588 doi: 10.1021/nl062383q
[100]	Koblmuüller G, Mayer B, Stettner T, et al. GaAs-AlGaAs core-shell nanowire lasers on silicon: invited review. Semicond Sci Technol, 2017, 32, 053001 doi: 10.1088/1361-6641/aa5e45
[101]	Saxena D, Mokkapati S, Parkinson P, et al. Optically pumped room-temperature GaAs nanowire lasers. Nat Photonics, 2013, 7, 963 doi: 10.1038/nphoton.2013.303
[102]	Heiss M, Fontana Y, Gustafsson A, et al. Self-assembled quantum dots in a nanowire system for quantum photonics. Nat Mater, 2013, 12, 439 doi: 10.1038/nmat3557
[103]	Chen C, Shehata S, Fradin C R , et al. Self-directed growth of AlGaAs core-shell nanowires for visible applications. Nano Lett, 2007, 7(9), 2584 doi: 10.1021/nl070874k
[104]	Wu Z H, Sun M, Mei X Y, et al. Growth and photoluminescence characteristics of AlGaAs nanowires. Appl Phys Lett, 2004, 85(4), 657 doi: 10.1063/1.1775037
[105]	Dubrovskii V G, Shtrom I V, Reznik R R, et al. Origin of spontaneous core-shell AlGaAs nanowires grown by molecular beam epitaxy. Crys Growth Des, 2016, 16(12), 7251 doi: 10.1021/acs.cgd.6b01412
[106]	Guo J, Hang H, Ding Y, et al. Growth of zinc blende GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructure nanowires on Si substrate by using AlGaAs buffer layers. J Cryst Growth, 2012, 359, 30 doi: 10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2012.07.047
[107]	Loitsch B, Winnerl J, Grimaldi G, et al. Crystal phase quantum dots in the ultrathin core of GaAs–AlGaAs core–shell nanowires. Nano Lett, 2015, 15(11), 7544 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03273
[108]	Dietrich C P, Fiore A, Thompson M G, et al. GaAs integrated quantum photonics: Towards compact and multi-functional quantum photonic integrated circuits. Laser Photonics Rev, 2016, 10(6), 870 doi: 10.1002/lpor.201500321
[109]	Chen R, Tran T T D, Ng K W, et al. Nanolasers grown on silicon. Nat Photonics, 2011, 5, 170 doi: 10.1038/nphoton.2010.315
[110]	Tatebayashi J, Kako S, Ho J, et al. Room-temperature lasing in a single nanowire with quantum dots. Nat Photonics, 2015, 9, 501 doi: 10.1038/nphoton.2015.111
[111]	Hou J J, Wang F, Han N, et al. Stoichiometric effect on electrical, optical and structural properties of composition-tunable In_xGa_{1– x}As nanowires. ACS Nano, 2012, 6(10), 9320 doi: 10.1021/nn304174g
[112]	Shin J C, Kim D Y, Lee A, et al. Improving the composition uniformity of Au-catalyzed InGaAs nanowires on silicon. J Cryst Growth, 2013, 372, 15 doi: 10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2013.02.025
[113]	Shin J C, Kim K H, Hu H, et al. Monolithically grown In_xGa_{1– x}As nanowire array on silicon tandem solar cells with high efficiency. IEEE Photonic Society 24th Annual Meeting, 2011
[114]	Shin J C, Kim K H, Yu K J, et al. In_xGa_{1– x}As nanowires on silicon: one-dimensional heterogeneous epitaxy, bandgap engineering, and photovoltaics. Nano Lett, 2011, 11(11), 4831 doi: 10.1021/nl202676b
[115]	Treu J, Speckbacher M, Saller K, et al. Widely tunable alloy composition and crystal structure in catalyst-free InGaAs nanowire arrays grown by selective area molecular beam epitaxy. Appl Phys Lett, 2016, 108(5), 053110 doi: 10.1063/1.4941407
[116]	Morkötter S, Funk S, Liang M, et al. Role of microstructure on optical properties in high-uniformity In_xGa_{1– x}As nanowire arrays: Evidence of a wider wurtzite band gap. Phys Rev B, 2013, 87, 205303 doi: 10.1103/PhysRevB.87.205303
[117]	Berg A, Yazdi S, Nowzari A, et al. Radial nanowire light-emitting diodes in the (Al_xGa_{1– x})_yIn_{1– y}P material system. Nano Lett, 2016, 16(1), 656 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b04401
[118]	Kivisaari P, Berg A, Karimi M, et al. Optimization of current injection in AlGaInP core-shell nanowire light-emitting diodes. Nano Lett, 2017, 17(6), 3599 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b00759
[119]	Li X, Shi T, Liu G, et al. Absorption enhancement of GaInP nanowires by tailoring transparent shell thicknesses and its application in III–V nanowire/Si film two-junction solar cells. Opt Express, 2015, 23(19), 25316 doi: 10.1364/OE.23.025316
[120]	Amiri S E H, Ranga P, Li D Y, et al. Growth of InGaP alloy nanowires with widely tunable bandgaps on silicon substrates. Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics, 2017
[121]	Tatebayashi J, Lin A, Wong P S, et al. Visible light emission from self-catalyzed GaInP/GaP core-shell double heterostructure nanowires on silicon. J Appl Phys, 2010, 108, 034315 doi: 10.1063/1.3457355
[122]	Fakhr A, Haddara Y M, LaPierre R R. Dependence of InGaP nanowire morphology and structure on molecular beam epitaxy growth conditions. Nanotechnology, 2010, 21(16), 165601 doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/21/16/165601
[123]	Jacobsson D, Persson J M, Kriegner D, et al. Particle-assisted Ga_xIn_{1– x}P nanowire growth for designed bandgap structures. Nanotechnology, 2012, 23(24), 245601 doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/23/24/245601
[124]	Berg A, Caroff P, Shahid N, et al. Growth and optical properties of In_xGa_{1– x}P nanowires synthesized by selective-area epitaxy. Nano Res, 2017, 10(2), 672 doi: 10.1007/s12274-016-1325-1
[125]	Otnes G, Heurlin M, Zeng X L, et al. In_xGa _1–_xP nanowire growth dynamics strongly affected by doping using diethylzinc. Nano Lett, 2017, 17(2), 702 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b03795
[126]	Ghalamestani S G, Ek M, Gamjipour B, et al. Demonstration of defect-free and composition tunable Ga_xIn_{1– x}Sb nanowires. Nano Lett, 2012, 12(9), 4914 doi: 10.1021/nl302497r
[127]	Zhou H, Pozuelo M, Hicks R F, et al. Self-catalyzed vapour-liquid-solid growth of InP_{1– x}Sb_x nanostructures. J Cryst Growth, 2011, 319, 25 doi: 10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2011.01.036
[128]	Russell H B, Andriotis A N, Menon M, et al. Direct band gap gallium antimony phosphide (GaSb_xP_{1– x}) alloys. Sci Rep, 2016, 6, 20822 doi: 10.1038/srep20822
[129]	Gagliano L, Kruijsse M, Schefold J D D, et al. Efficient green emission from wurtzite Al_xIn_{1– x}P nanowires. Nano Lett, 2018, 18(6), 3543 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b00621
[130]	Mayer B, Rudolph D, Schnell J, et al. Lasing from individual GaAs–AlGaAs core–shell nanowires up to room temperature. Nat Commun, 2013, 4, 2931 doi: 10.1038/ncomms3931
[131]	Birowosuto M D, Yokoo A, Zhang G, et al. Movable high-Q nanoresonators realized by semiconductor nanowires on a Si photonic crystal platform. Nat Mater, 2014, 13, 279 doi: 10.1038/nmat3873
[132]	Ren D, Ahtapodov L, Nilsen J S, et al. Single-mode near-infrared lasing in a GaAsSb-based nanowire superlattice at room temperature. Nano Lett, 2018, 18(4), 2304 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b05015
[133]	Stettner T, Thurn A, Döblinger M, et al. Tuning lasing emission toward long wavelengths in GaAs-(In,Al)GaAs core-multishell nanowires. Nano Lett, 2018, 18(10), 6292 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b02503
[134]	Kim H, Lee W J, Farrell A C, et al. Telecom-wavelength bottom-up nanobeam lasers on silicon-on-insulator. Nano Lett, 2017, 17, 5244 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b01360
[135]	Kim H, Farrell A C, Senanayake P, et al. Monolithically integrated InGaAs nanowires on 3D structured silicon-on-insulator as a new platform for full optical links. Nano Lett, 2016, 16, 1833 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b04883
[136]	Lee W J, Kim H, You J B, et al. Ultracompact bottom-up photonic crystal lasers on silicon-on-insulator. Sci Rep, 2017, 7, 9543 doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-10031-8
[137]	Zhang Y, Liu H. Nanowires for high-efficiency, low-cost solar photovoltaics. Crystals, 2019, 9(2), 87 doi: 10.3390/cryst9020087
[138]	Lin R, Galan S V, Sun H, et al. Tapering-induced enhancement of light extraction efficiency of nanowire deep ultraviolet LED by theoretical simulations. Photonics Res, 2018, 6(5), 457 doi: 10.1364/PRJ.6.000457
[139]	Zhang Y, Sanchez A M, Aagesen M, et al. Growth and fabrication of high-quality single nanowire devices with radial p–i–n junctions. Small, 2019, 15(3), 1803684 doi: 10.1002/smll.201803684
[140]	Holm J V, Jørgensen H I, Krogstrup P, et al. Surface-passivated GaAsP single-nanowire solar cells exceeding 10% efficiency grown on silicon. Nat Commun, 2013, 4, 1498 doi: 10.1038/ncomms2510
[141]	Hou J J, Wang F, Han N, et al. Diameter dependence of electron mobility in InGaAs nanowires. Appl Phys Lett, 2013, 102(9), 093112 doi: 10.1063/1.4794414
[142]	Kilpi O P, Svensson J, Wu J, et al. Vertical InAs/InGaAs heterostructure metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors on Si. Nano Lett, 2017, 17(10), 6006 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b02251

Search

GET CITATION

shu

Export: BibTex EndNote

Article Metrics

Article views: 5281 Times PDF downloads: 137 Times Cited by: 0 Times

History

Received: 01 July 2019 Revised: 09 September 2019 Online: Accepted Manuscript: 12 September 2019Uncorrected proof: 18 September 2019Corrected proof: 17 October 2019Published: 01 October 2019

Over the past decades, the progress in the growth of materials which can be applied to cutting-edge technologies in the field of electronics, optoelectronics and energy harvesting has been remarkable. Among the various materials, group III–V semiconductors are of particular interest and have been widely investigated due to their excellent optical properties and high carrier mobility. However, the integration of III–V structures as light sources and numerous other optical components on Si, which is the foundation for most optoelectronic and electronic integrated circuits, has been hindered by the large lattice mismatch between these compounds. This mismatch results in substantial amounts of strain and degradation of the performance of the devices. Nanowires (NWs) are unique nanostructures that induce elastic strain relaxation, allowing for the monolithic integration of III–V semiconductors on the cheap and mature Si platform. A technique that ensures flexibility and freedom in the design of NW structures is the growth of ternary III–V NWs, which offer a tuneable frame of optical characteristics, merely by adjusting their nominal composition. In this review, we will focus on the recent progress in the growth of ternary III–V NWs on Si substrates. After analysing the growth mechanisms that are being employed and describing the effect of strain in the NW growth, we will thoroughly inspect the available literature and present the growth methods, characterization and optical measurements of each of the III–V ternary alloys that have been demonstrated. The different properties and special treatments required for each of these material platforms are also discussed. Moreover, we will present the results from the works on device fabrication, including lasers, solar cells, water splitting devices, photodetectors and FETs, where ternary III–V NWs were used as building blocks. Through the current paper, we exhibit the up-to-date state in this field of research and summarize the important accomplishments of the past few years.

III–V ternary nanowires on Si substrates: growth, characterization and device applications

References

Search

GET CITATION

Share:

Article Metrics

History

Catalog

Email This Article

III–V ternary nanowires on Si substrates: growth, characterization and device applications

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/40/10/101301

Abstract

References

Proportional views

Catalog

III–V ternary nanowires on Si substrates: growth, characterization and device applications

References

Search

GET CITATION

Share:

Article Metrics

History

Catalog

Email This Article

III–V ternary nanowires on Si substrates: growth, characterization and device applications

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/40/10/101301

Abstract

References

Proportional views

Catalog

Export File

Citation

Format

Content