Compact SPAD pixels with fast and accurate photon counting in the analog domain

Zhiqiang Ma; Zhong Wu; Yue Xu

doi:10.1088/1674-4926/42/5/052402

J. Semicond. > 2021, Volume 42 > Issue 5 > 052402

ARTICLES

Compact SPAD pixels with fast and accurate photon counting in the analog domain

Zhiqiang Ma¹, Zhong Wu¹ and Yue Xu^{1, 2,}

+ Author Affiliations

Corresponding author: Yue Xu, yuex@njupt.edu.cn

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/42/5/052402

Abstract: A compact pixel for single-photon detection in the analog domain is presented. The pixel integrates a single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD), a passive quenching & active recharging circuit (PQARC), and an analog counter for fast and accurate sensing and counting of photons. Fabricated in a standard 0.18 µm CMOS technology, the simulated and experimental results reveal that the dead time of the PQARC is about 8 ns and the maximum photon-counting rate can reach 125 Mcps (counting per second). The analog counter can achieve an 8-bit counting range with a voltage step of 6.9 mV. The differential nonlinearity (DNL) and integral nonlinearity (INL) of the analog counter are within the ± 0.6 and ± 1.2 LSB, respectively, indicating high linearity of photon counting. Due to its simple circuit structure and compact layout configuration, the total area occupation of the presented pixel is about 1500 μm², leading to a high fill factor of 9.2%. The presented in-pixel front-end circuit is very suitable for the high-density array integration of SPAD sensors.

Key words: single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD), passive quenching & active recharging circuit (PQARC), analog counter, nonlinearity

References

[1]	Jiang X D, Itzler M, O’Donnell K, et al. InP-based single-photon detectors and geiger-mode APD arrays for quantum communications applications. IEEE J Sel Top Quantum Electron, 2015, 21, 5 doi: 10.1109/JSTQE.2014.2358685
[2]	Xu H S, Perenzoni D, Tomasi A, et al. A 16 × 16 pixel post-processing free quantum random number generator based on SPADs. IEEE Trans Circuits Syst II, 2018, 65, 627 doi: 10.1109/TCSII.2018.2821904
[3]	Nissinen I, Nissinen J, Keränen P, et al. A 16 × 256 SPAD line detector with a 50-ps, 3-bit, 256-channel time-to-digital converter for Raman spectroscopy. IEEE Sens J, 2018, 18, 3789 doi: 10.1109/JSEN.2018.2813531
[4]	Bronzi D, Villa F, Tisa S, et al. 100 000 frames/s 64 × 32 single-photon detector array for 2-D imaging and 3-D ranging. IEEE J Sel Top Quantum Electron, 2014, 20, 354 doi: 10.1109/JSTQE.2014.2341562
[5]	Zhang C, Lindner S, Antolović I M, et al. A 30-frames/s, 252 ×144 SPAD flash LiDAR with 1728 dual-clock 48.8-ps TDCs, and pixel-wise integrated histogramming. IEEE J Solid-State Circuits, 2019, 54, 1137 doi: 10.1109/JSSC.2018.2883720
[6]	Bronzi D, Zou Y, Villa F, et al. Automotive three-dimensional vision through a single-photon counting SPAD camera. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst, 2016, 17, 782 doi: 10.1109/TITS.2015.2482601
[7]	Li D U, Arlt J, Richardson J, et al. Real-time fluorescence lifetime imaging system with a 32 × 32 013μm CMOS low dark-count single-photon avalanche diode array. Opt Express, 2010, 18, 10257 doi: 10.1364/OE.18.010257
[8]	Ulku A C, Bruschini C, Antolović I M, et al. A 512 × 512 SPAD image sensor with integrated gating for widefield FLIM. IEEE J Sel Top Quantum Electron, 2019, 25, 1 doi: 10.1109/JSTQE.2018.2867439
[9]	Zappa F, Lotito A, Giudice A C, et al. Monolithic active-quenching and active-reset circuit for single-photon avalanche detectors. IEEE J Solid-State Circuits, 2003, 38, 1298 doi: 10.1109/JSSC.2003.813291
[10]	Bronzi D, Tisa S, Villa F, et al. Fast sensing and quenching of CMOS SPADs for minimal afterpulsing effects. IEEE Photonics Technol Lett, 2013, 25, 776 doi: 10.1109/LPT.2013.2251621
[11]	ZhengL X, Wu J, Shi L X, et al. Active quenching circuit for a InGaAs single-photon avalanche diode. J Semicond, 2014, 35, 045011 doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/35/4/045011
[12]	Giustolisi G, Grasso A D, Palumbo G. Integrated quenching-and-reset circuit for single-photon avalanche diodes. IEEE Trans Instrum Meas, 2015, 64, 271 doi: 10.1109/TIM.2014.2338652
[13]	Ceccarelli F, Acconcia G, Gulinatti A, et al. Fully integrated active quenching circuit driving custom-technology SPADs with 6.2-ns dead time. IEEE Photonics Technol Lett, 2019, 31, 102 doi: 10.1109/LPT.2018.2884740
[14]	Veerappan C, Richardson J, Walker R, et al. A 160 × 128 single-photon image sensor with on-pixel 55ps 10b time-to-digital converter. 2011 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference, 2011, 312
[15]	Villa F, Lussana R, Bronzi D, et al. CMOS imager with 1024 SPADs and TDCs for single-photon timing and 3-D time-of-flight. IEEE J Sel Top Quantum Electron, 2014, 20, 364 doi: 10.1109/JSTQE.2014.2342197
[16]	Stoppa D, Borghetti F, Richardson J, et al. A 32 × 32-pixel array with in-pixel photon counting and arrival time measurement in the analog domain. 2009 Proceedings of ESSCIRC, 2009, 204
[17]	Chitnis D, Collins S. Compact readout circuits for SPAD arrays. Proceedings of 2010 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, 2010, 357
[18]	Pancheri L, Massari N, Stoppa D. SPAD image sensor with analog counting pixel for time-resolved fluorescence detection. IEEE Trans Electron Devices, 2013, 60, 3442 doi: 10.1109/TED.2013.2276752
[19]	Panina E, Pancheri L, Dalla Betta G F, et al. Compact CMOS analog counter for SPAD pixel arrays. IEEE Trans Circuits Syst II, 2014, 61, 214 doi: 10.1109/TCSII.2014.2312094
[20]	Perenzoni M, Massari N, Perenzoni D, et al. A 160 × 120-pixel analog-counting single-photon imager with Sub-ns time-gating and self-referenced column-parallel A/D conversion for fluorescence lifetime imaging. IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, 2016, 51, 155 doi: 10.1109/JSSC.2015.2482497
[21]	Diéguez A, Canals J, Franch N, et al. A compact analog histogramming SPAD-based CMOS chip for time-resolved fluorescence. IEEE Trans Biomed Circuits Syst, 2019, 13, 343 doi: 10.1109/TBCAS.2019.2892825
[22]	Xu Y, Zhao T C, Li D. An accurate behavioral model for single-photon avalanche diode statistical performance simulation. Superlattices Microstruct, 2018, 113, 635 doi: 10.1016/j.spmi.2017.11.049

Fig. 1. A front-end circuit diagram of SPAD pixel, including a PQARC and an analog counter.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 2. The timing diagram of pixel signals.

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Fig. 3. (Color online) Die micrograph of the compact SPAD pixel.

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Fig. 4. (Color online) Transient output avalanche pulse of the proposed quenching and recharging circuit. (a) Tested waveform. (b) Simulated waveform with on-chip buffer. (c) Simulated waveform without buffer.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 5. (Color online) Readout voltage of the analog counter as a function of the photon-counting number.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 6. (Color online) Non-linearity characteristics of the analog counter. (a) Differential non-linearity (DNL). (b) Integral non-linearity (INL).

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 7. (Color online) Output voltage step size as a function of (a) pulsewidth and (b) period for the analog counter.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Table 1. Summary of performance Comparison with SPAD pixels reported in the literature.

Parameter	Ref. [10]	Ref. [13]	Ref. [16]	Ref. [18]	Ref. [19]	Ref. [20]	Ref. [21]	This work
CMOS tech. (μm)	0.35	0.18	0.13	0.35	0.35	0.35	0.18	0.18
Pixel size (μm)	20	50	50	25	–	15	–	25
Counting rate (Mcps)	50	160	20	–	–	–	–	125
Counting method	–	–	Analog	Analog	Analog	Analog	Analog	Analog
Counting resolution (bit)	–	–	6	–	8	6	13	8
Output voltage range (V)	–	–	–	1.5	1	1.15	1.3	1.75
DNL (LSB)	–	–	< 0.7	–	< 0.6	< 1	–	< 0.6
INL (LSB)	–	–	< 1.9	–	< 1	< 1.01	–	< 1.2
Pixel area (μm²)	–	–	–	–	–	–	5400	1500
Fill factor (%)	2.8	–	–	20.8	–	21	–	9.2
Power consumption (μW)	–	–	300	–	–	15500	100	38.2

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[1]	Jiang X D, Itzler M, O’Donnell K, et al. InP-based single-photon detectors and geiger-mode APD arrays for quantum communications applications. IEEE J Sel Top Quantum Electron, 2015, 21, 5 doi: 10.1109/JSTQE.2014.2358685
[2]	Xu H S, Perenzoni D, Tomasi A, et al. A 16 × 16 pixel post-processing free quantum random number generator based on SPADs. IEEE Trans Circuits Syst II, 2018, 65, 627 doi: 10.1109/TCSII.2018.2821904
[3]	Nissinen I, Nissinen J, Keränen P, et al. A 16 × 256 SPAD line detector with a 50-ps, 3-bit, 256-channel time-to-digital converter for Raman spectroscopy. IEEE Sens J, 2018, 18, 3789 doi: 10.1109/JSEN.2018.2813531
[4]	Bronzi D, Villa F, Tisa S, et al. 100 000 frames/s 64 × 32 single-photon detector array for 2-D imaging and 3-D ranging. IEEE J Sel Top Quantum Electron, 2014, 20, 354 doi: 10.1109/JSTQE.2014.2341562
[5]	Zhang C, Lindner S, Antolović I M, et al. A 30-frames/s, 252 ×144 SPAD flash LiDAR with 1728 dual-clock 48.8-ps TDCs, and pixel-wise integrated histogramming. IEEE J Solid-State Circuits, 2019, 54, 1137 doi: 10.1109/JSSC.2018.2883720
[6]	Bronzi D, Zou Y, Villa F, et al. Automotive three-dimensional vision through a single-photon counting SPAD camera. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst, 2016, 17, 782 doi: 10.1109/TITS.2015.2482601
[7]	Li D U, Arlt J, Richardson J, et al. Real-time fluorescence lifetime imaging system with a 32 × 32 013μm CMOS low dark-count single-photon avalanche diode array. Opt Express, 2010, 18, 10257 doi: 10.1364/OE.18.010257
[8]	Ulku A C, Bruschini C, Antolović I M, et al. A 512 × 512 SPAD image sensor with integrated gating for widefield FLIM. IEEE J Sel Top Quantum Electron, 2019, 25, 1 doi: 10.1109/JSTQE.2018.2867439
[9]	Zappa F, Lotito A, Giudice A C, et al. Monolithic active-quenching and active-reset circuit for single-photon avalanche detectors. IEEE J Solid-State Circuits, 2003, 38, 1298 doi: 10.1109/JSSC.2003.813291
[10]	Bronzi D, Tisa S, Villa F, et al. Fast sensing and quenching of CMOS SPADs for minimal afterpulsing effects. IEEE Photonics Technol Lett, 2013, 25, 776 doi: 10.1109/LPT.2013.2251621
[11]	ZhengL X, Wu J, Shi L X, et al. Active quenching circuit for a InGaAs single-photon avalanche diode. J Semicond, 2014, 35, 045011 doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/35/4/045011
[12]	Giustolisi G, Grasso A D, Palumbo G. Integrated quenching-and-reset circuit for single-photon avalanche diodes. IEEE Trans Instrum Meas, 2015, 64, 271 doi: 10.1109/TIM.2014.2338652
[13]	Ceccarelli F, Acconcia G, Gulinatti A, et al. Fully integrated active quenching circuit driving custom-technology SPADs with 6.2-ns dead time. IEEE Photonics Technol Lett, 2019, 31, 102 doi: 10.1109/LPT.2018.2884740
[14]	Veerappan C, Richardson J, Walker R, et al. A 160 × 128 single-photon image sensor with on-pixel 55ps 10b time-to-digital converter. 2011 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference, 2011, 312
[15]	Villa F, Lussana R, Bronzi D, et al. CMOS imager with 1024 SPADs and TDCs for single-photon timing and 3-D time-of-flight. IEEE J Sel Top Quantum Electron, 2014, 20, 364 doi: 10.1109/JSTQE.2014.2342197
[16]	Stoppa D, Borghetti F, Richardson J, et al. A 32 × 32-pixel array with in-pixel photon counting and arrival time measurement in the analog domain. 2009 Proceedings of ESSCIRC, 2009, 204
[17]	Chitnis D, Collins S. Compact readout circuits for SPAD arrays. Proceedings of 2010 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, 2010, 357
[18]	Pancheri L, Massari N, Stoppa D. SPAD image sensor with analog counting pixel for time-resolved fluorescence detection. IEEE Trans Electron Devices, 2013, 60, 3442 doi: 10.1109/TED.2013.2276752
[19]	Panina E, Pancheri L, Dalla Betta G F, et al. Compact CMOS analog counter for SPAD pixel arrays. IEEE Trans Circuits Syst II, 2014, 61, 214 doi: 10.1109/TCSII.2014.2312094
[20]	Perenzoni M, Massari N, Perenzoni D, et al. A 160 × 120-pixel analog-counting single-photon imager with Sub-ns time-gating and self-referenced column-parallel A/D conversion for fluorescence lifetime imaging. IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, 2016, 51, 155 doi: 10.1109/JSSC.2015.2482497
[21]	Diéguez A, Canals J, Franch N, et al. A compact analog histogramming SPAD-based CMOS chip for time-resolved fluorescence. IEEE Trans Biomed Circuits Syst, 2019, 13, 343 doi: 10.1109/TBCAS.2019.2892825
[22]	Xu Y, Zhao T C, Li D. An accurate behavioral model for single-photon avalanche diode statistical performance simulation. Superlattices Microstruct, 2018, 113, 635 doi: 10.1016/j.spmi.2017.11.049

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Received: 11 August 2020 Revised: 27 January 2021 Online: Accepted Manuscript: 25 March 2021Uncorrected proof: 26 March 2021Published: 01 May 2021

Article Navigation > Journal of Semiconductors > 2021 > 42(5): 052402

Zhiqiang Ma, Zhong Wu, Yue Xu. Compact SPAD pixels with fast and accurate photon counting in the analog domain[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2021, 42(5): 052402. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/42/5/052402 ****Z Q Ma, Z Wu, Y Xu, Compact SPAD pixels with fast and accurate photon counting in the analog domain[J]. J. Semicond., 2021, 42(5): 052402. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/42/5/052402.

Citation:

Zhiqiang Ma, Zhong Wu, Yue Xu. Compact SPAD pixels with fast and accurate photon counting in the analog domain[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2021, 42(5): 052402. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/42/5/052402 ****

Z Q Ma, Z Wu, Y Xu, Compact SPAD pixels with fast and accurate photon counting in the analog domain[J]. J. Semicond., 2021, 42(5): 052402. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/42/5/052402.

Citation:

Z Q Ma, Z Wu, Y Xu, Compact SPAD pixels with fast and accurate photon counting in the analog domain[J]. J. Semicond., 2021, 42(5): 052402. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/42/5/052402.

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Compact SPAD pixels with fast and accurate photon counting in the analog domain

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/42/5/052402

1.
College of Electronic and Optical Engineering & College of Microelectronics, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, China
2.
National and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of RF integration & Micro-Assembly Technology, Nanjing 210023, China

More Information

Zhiqiang Ma：received a bachelor’s degree in measurement & control technology and instruments from Taiyuan Institute of Technology, Taiyuan, China, in 2019. He is currently pursuing a master’s degree with the Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing, China
Yue Xu：received a PhD degree in microelectronics and solid-state electronics from Nanjing University, China, in 2012. He is currently a professor with the Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing, China. His main research interests include the CMOS detector, analog integrated circuit design and device reliability
Corresponding author: yuex@njupt.edu.cn
Received Date: 2020-08-11
Revised Date: 2021-01-27
Published Date: 2021-05-10

Abstract

Abstract

A compact pixel for single-photon detection in the analog domain is presented. The pixel integrates a single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD), a passive quenching & active recharging circuit (PQARC), and an analog counter for fast and accurate sensing and counting of photons. Fabricated in a standard 0.18 µm CMOS technology, the simulated and experimental results reveal that the dead time of the PQARC is about 8 ns and the maximum photon-counting rate can reach 125 Mcps (counting per second). The analog counter can achieve an 8-bit counting range with a voltage step of 6.9 mV. The differential nonlinearity (DNL) and integral nonlinearity (INL) of the analog counter are within the ± 0.6 and ± 1.2 LSB, respectively, indicating high linearity of photon counting. Due to its simple circuit structure and compact layout configuration, the total area occupation of the presented pixel is about 1500 μm², leading to a high fill factor of 9.2%. The presented in-pixel front-end circuit is very suitable for the high-density array integration of SPAD sensors.
- single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD),
- passive quenching & active recharging circuit (PQARC),
- analog counter,
- nonlinearity

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References(22)

References

[1]	Jiang X D, Itzler M, O’Donnell K, et al. InP-based single-photon detectors and geiger-mode APD arrays for quantum communications applications. IEEE J Sel Top Quantum Electron, 2015, 21, 5 doi: 10.1109/JSTQE.2014.2358685
[2]	Xu H S, Perenzoni D, Tomasi A, et al. A 16 × 16 pixel post-processing free quantum random number generator based on SPADs. IEEE Trans Circuits Syst II, 2018, 65, 627 doi: 10.1109/TCSII.2018.2821904
[3]	Nissinen I, Nissinen J, Keränen P, et al. A 16 × 256 SPAD line detector with a 50-ps, 3-bit, 256-channel time-to-digital converter for Raman spectroscopy. IEEE Sens J, 2018, 18, 3789 doi: 10.1109/JSEN.2018.2813531
[4]	Bronzi D, Villa F, Tisa S, et al. 100 000 frames/s 64 × 32 single-photon detector array for 2-D imaging and 3-D ranging. IEEE J Sel Top Quantum Electron, 2014, 20, 354 doi: 10.1109/JSTQE.2014.2341562
[5]	Zhang C, Lindner S, Antolović I M, et al. A 30-frames/s, 252 ×144 SPAD flash LiDAR with 1728 dual-clock 48.8-ps TDCs, and pixel-wise integrated histogramming. IEEE J Solid-State Circuits, 2019, 54, 1137 doi: 10.1109/JSSC.2018.2883720
[6]	Bronzi D, Zou Y, Villa F, et al. Automotive three-dimensional vision through a single-photon counting SPAD camera. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst, 2016, 17, 782 doi: 10.1109/TITS.2015.2482601
[7]	Li D U, Arlt J, Richardson J, et al. Real-time fluorescence lifetime imaging system with a 32 × 32 013μm CMOS low dark-count single-photon avalanche diode array. Opt Express, 2010, 18, 10257 doi: 10.1364/OE.18.010257
[8]	Ulku A C, Bruschini C, Antolović I M, et al. A 512 × 512 SPAD image sensor with integrated gating for widefield FLIM. IEEE J Sel Top Quantum Electron, 2019, 25, 1 doi: 10.1109/JSTQE.2018.2867439
[9]	Zappa F, Lotito A, Giudice A C, et al. Monolithic active-quenching and active-reset circuit for single-photon avalanche detectors. IEEE J Solid-State Circuits, 2003, 38, 1298 doi: 10.1109/JSSC.2003.813291
[10]	Bronzi D, Tisa S, Villa F, et al. Fast sensing and quenching of CMOS SPADs for minimal afterpulsing effects. IEEE Photonics Technol Lett, 2013, 25, 776 doi: 10.1109/LPT.2013.2251621
[11]	ZhengL X, Wu J, Shi L X, et al. Active quenching circuit for a InGaAs single-photon avalanche diode. J Semicond, 2014, 35, 045011 doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/35/4/045011
[12]	Giustolisi G, Grasso A D, Palumbo G. Integrated quenching-and-reset circuit for single-photon avalanche diodes. IEEE Trans Instrum Meas, 2015, 64, 271 doi: 10.1109/TIM.2014.2338652
[13]	Ceccarelli F, Acconcia G, Gulinatti A, et al. Fully integrated active quenching circuit driving custom-technology SPADs with 6.2-ns dead time. IEEE Photonics Technol Lett, 2019, 31, 102 doi: 10.1109/LPT.2018.2884740
[14]	Veerappan C, Richardson J, Walker R, et al. A 160 × 128 single-photon image sensor with on-pixel 55ps 10b time-to-digital converter. 2011 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference, 2011, 312
[15]	Villa F, Lussana R, Bronzi D, et al. CMOS imager with 1024 SPADs and TDCs for single-photon timing and 3-D time-of-flight. IEEE J Sel Top Quantum Electron, 2014, 20, 364 doi: 10.1109/JSTQE.2014.2342197
[16]	Stoppa D, Borghetti F, Richardson J, et al. A 32 × 32-pixel array with in-pixel photon counting and arrival time measurement in the analog domain. 2009 Proceedings of ESSCIRC, 2009, 204
[17]	Chitnis D, Collins S. Compact readout circuits for SPAD arrays. Proceedings of 2010 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, 2010, 357
[18]	Pancheri L, Massari N, Stoppa D. SPAD image sensor with analog counting pixel for time-resolved fluorescence detection. IEEE Trans Electron Devices, 2013, 60, 3442 doi: 10.1109/TED.2013.2276752
[19]	Panina E, Pancheri L, Dalla Betta G F, et al. Compact CMOS analog counter for SPAD pixel arrays. IEEE Trans Circuits Syst II, 2014, 61, 214 doi: 10.1109/TCSII.2014.2312094
[20]	Perenzoni M, Massari N, Perenzoni D, et al. A 160 × 120-pixel analog-counting single-photon imager with Sub-ns time-gating and self-referenced column-parallel A/D conversion for fluorescence lifetime imaging. IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, 2016, 51, 155 doi: 10.1109/JSSC.2015.2482497
[21]	Diéguez A, Canals J, Franch N, et al. A compact analog histogramming SPAD-based CMOS chip for time-resolved fluorescence. IEEE Trans Biomed Circuits Syst, 2019, 13, 343 doi: 10.1109/TBCAS.2019.2892825
[22]	Xu Y, Zhao T C, Li D. An accurate behavioral model for single-photon avalanche diode statistical performance simulation. Superlattices Microstruct, 2018, 113, 635 doi: 10.1016/j.spmi.2017.11.049

Compact SPAD pixels with fast and accurate photon counting in the analog domain

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