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GaAs-based resonant tunneling diode: Device aspects from design, manufacturing, characterization and applications

Swagata Samanta

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 Corresponding author: Swagata Samanta, swagata.s@srmap.edu.in

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/10/103101

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Abstract: This review article discusses the development of gallium arsenide (GaAs)-based resonant tunneling diodes (RTD) since the 1970s. To the best of my knowledge, this article is the first review of GaAs RTD technology which covers different epitaxial-structure design, fabrication techniques, and characterizations for various application areas. It is expected that the details presented here will help the readers to gain a perspective on the previous accomplishments, as well as have an outlook on the current trends and future developments in GaAs RTD research.

Key words: gallium arsenide, microfabrication, resonant tunneling devices



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Fig. 1.  (Color online) Energy band diagram of a typical double-barrier RTD structure.

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Fig. 2.  Corresponding I–V characteristics of a typical double-barrier RTD structure.

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Fig. 3.  (Color online) Conduction (blue square) and valence band (red dot) offsets for AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs interface with varying aluminum concentration. (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [17]. ©2013 American Institute of Physics.)

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Fig. 4.  (Color online) RTD device fabrication flow by polyimide process: (a) top metal deposition; (b) top mesa; (c) bottom metal deposition; (d) bottom mesa; (e) passivation and via-opening; and (f) bond pad formation.

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Fig. 5.  SEM image of a fabricated RTD device with 3 × 3 μm2 mesa area. (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [31]. ©2014 University of Glasgow.)

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Fig. 6.  (Color online) (a) SEM image and (b) actual micrograph of a GaAs/AlAs RTD device fabricated by air-bridge process. (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [32]. ©2017 Elsevier.)

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Fig. 7.  (Color online) Cross section after bond pad establishment for BCB process of RTD fabrication.

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Table 1.   Material properties for different semiconductors at room temperature.

Material Lattice constant
(Ǻ)		 Electron mobility
(cm2/(V·s))		 Relative dielectric
constant		 Energy bandgap
(eV)		 Electron effective
mass (m0)
Si 5.43095 1500 11.9 1.12 (indirect) l1: 0.98
t: 0.19
Ge 5.64613 3900 16.0 0.66 (indirect) l: 1.64
t: 0.082
GaAs 5.6533 8500 13.1 1.424 (direct) 0.063
AlAs 5.6605 180 10.1 2.36 (indirect) 0.11
AlxGa1-xAs 5.6533 +
0.0078 x		 8 × 103 – 2.2 × 104x + 104x2
(for 0 < x < 0.45);
–255 + 1160x – 720x2
(for 0.45 < x < 1)		 11.96
(when x = 0.33)		 1.42–2.36
(direct when x < 0.4)		 0.063 + 0.083x
(for 0 < x < 0.45)
GaP 5.4512 110 11.1 2.26 (indirect) 0.82
GaN a = 3.189
c = 5.182		 400 10.4 3.44 (direct) 0.27
InP 5.8686 4600 12.6 1.35 (direct) 0.077
1where, electron rest mass (m0) = 9.11 × 10−31 kg; l: longitudinal; t: transverse.
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Table 2.   Ohmic contact formation on GaAs substrate.

Metal schemeDeposition methodAnneal temperature
(°C)		Anneal
time (s)		Specific contact
resistance (Ω·cm2)		Ref.
Pd/Ge/PdEB-PVD430153.2 × 10–4[35]
Pd/Ge/Ti/
Pt		EB-PVD430158 × 10–7[35]
Pd/Ge/Pd/Ti/AuEB-PVD415154.3 × 10–7[35]
Pd/SnResistance-heating evaporation
36018003.26 × 10–5[36]
Pd/Ge/
Ti/Au		EB-PVD340202.8 × 10–6[37]
Pd/Ge/
Ti/Pt		EB-PVD380–45020(2.4–5.3) × 10–6[38]
Pd/Ge/Au/Pd/AuEB-PVD400302 × 10–6[39]
Pd/Ge/Au/Pd/AuEB-PVD320 initially, then 40020, then 602 × 10–6[40]
Au/Ge/Ni/AuEB-PVD
400605.6 × 10–6[41]
Ge/CuEB-PVD
40018007 × 10–7[42]
Ge/Au/Ni/Ta/AuMagnetron sputtering
450–7 × 10–7[43]
WSi/CuRF sputtering
40056.3 × 10–6[44]
Au/Ti/W/TiSputtering and
EB-PVD
400305.5 × 10–6[45]
InIAD
375603 × 10–6[46]
where, EB-PVD: electron beam physical vapor deposition; RF: radio frequency; resistance-heating evaporation: resistive evaporation; IAD: ion-assisted deposition.
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Table 3.   Wet etching solution for GaAs material around room temperature.

Etching solution Etchant ratio Temperature (°C) Etch rate (nm/min) Ref.
NH4OH : H2O2 : H2O1 : 1 : 2525924[47]
1 : 1 : 50594
1 : 2 : 50861
2 : 1 : 50993
1 : 1 : 250177
1 : 1 : 500
54
40 : 4 : 1Room temp.202.6[48]
40 : 10 : 0509.1
40 : 20 : 01385
1 : 1 : 51890
1 : 10 : 50025
10 : 1 : 50018
1 : 10 : 50006.1
1 : 1 : 50001.65
1 : 10 : 3000
12
HCl : H3PO4 : H2O1 : 10 : 1
2010[49]
HCl : CH3COOH : H2O1 : 10 : 1
2060[49]
HCl : CH3COOH : H2O21 : 20 : 02010[50]
1 : 20 : 150
1 : 20 : 2120
1 : 20 : 3270
1 : 2 : 1440
1 : 5 : 1250
1 : 10 : 1120
1 : 20 : 150
1 : 30 : 130
1 : 40 : 1
15
H3PO4 : H2O2 : H2O3 : 1 : 50Room temp.60[32]
3 : 1 : 75Room temp.72[51]
1 : 1 : 2525259.8[47]
1 : 1 : 50130.8
1 : 2 : 50244.8
2 : 1 : 50129
1 : 1 : 25040.8
1 : 1 : 500
7.8
H3PO4 : HNO3
3 : 1Room temp.1125[48]
H2SO4 : H2O2
4 : 1Room temp.1073[48]
H2SO4 : H2O2 : H2O4 : 3 : 3Room temp.9000[52]
1 : 1 : 2525234[47]
1 : 1 : 5090.6
1 : 2 : 50202.8
2 : 1 : 50184.8
1 : 1 : 25027
1 : 1 : 500
27.6
C6H8O7 : H2O22 : 12030[53]
3 : 145
4 : 145
5 : 142
7 : 133
10 : 121
1 : 1185[54]
1 : 37
1 : 5200
1 : 10210
1 : 15150
1 : 2590
1 : 1215.8[55]
2 : 1
570
HCl : HNO3
3 : 1Room temp.477[48]
HCl : HNO3 : H2O
1 : 1 : 1Room temp.2277[48]
HCl : H2O2 : H2O1 : 10 : 500Room temp.9.27[48]
80 : 4 : 1185
1 : 10 : 5000
8.21
HF : HNO3 : H2O1 : 1 : 1
Room temp.122693[48]
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Table 4.   Dry etching details for GaAs material.
Inductively coupled plasma etching
Gas system Flow rate
(sccm)		 RF power
(W)		 ICP power
(W)		 Chamber pressure
(mTorr)		 Etch rate
(μm/min)		 Ref.
BCl3/Cl2 30/80 80 600 10 2.6 [56]
800 4.5
1000 5.4
1200 6.2
1500 6.4
600 5 3.2
10 2.8
15 1.8
20 1.2
150 10 3.6
200 4.0
300 4.4
BCl3/Cl2 3 : 4 (ratio) 90 950 40 ~4.0 [57]
BCl3/Cl2 4 : 1 RF : ICP = 1 : 8 10 3.64 [58]
2 : 1 3.6
2.5 : 1 2.38
6 : 1 2.37
8 : 1 2.1
BCl3/Cl2/Ar 4 : 1 : 5 RF : ICP = 1 : 8 10 2.38 [58]
2.5 : 1 : 5 2.13
6 : 1 : 5 2.0
BCl3/Cl2/Ar/N2 6 : 1 : 5 : 2 RF : ICP = 1 : 8 10 3.84 [58]
6 : 1 : 5 : 2.5 4.0
6 : 1 : 5 : 3 4.0
3 : 1 : 5 : 3 2.5
20 : 1 : 5 : 3 1.8
5 1.14
20 2.36
25 3.6
30 3.7
20 : 1:5 : 5 30 5.56
20 4.1
20 : 1 : 10 : 3 20 2.8
20 : 1 : 20 : 3 3.0
20 : 1 : 30 : 3 2.5
20 : 1 : 50 : 3 2.23
BCl3/Cl2/
N2		 20 : 1 : 3 RF : ICP = 1 : 8 10 1.92 [58]
Cl2/Ar 13/20 80 250 7.5 1.37 [59]
150 1.6
200 1.82
Cl2/Ar/
SiCl4		 13/20/5 150 250 7.5 1.65
Reactive ion etching
Gas system Flow rate (sccm) RF power (W) Chamber pressure (mTorr) Etch rate (μm/min) Ref.
CCl4/CCl2F2 1/5 200 40 1.3 [57]
CCl2F2/He 10/15 85 10 0.2 [60]
20 0.5
30 0.7
40 1.05
50 1.3
60 1.4
SiCl4/Ar 5/10 20 30 0.75 [61]
30 1.25
50 1.25
30 50 1.5
80 2.5
SF6/(BCl3 + SF6) 1 : 5 150 50 1.8 [62]
2 : 5 4.2
11 : 20 5.5
3 : 5 2.7
4 : 5 4.5
CCl2F2/Ar 1 : 10 200 200 0.32 [33]
300 0.23
400 0.15
500 0.08
600 0.15
DownLoad: CSV

Table 5.   Performance of GaAs-based RTDs at room temperature.

Material system PVCR Jp (kA/cm2) Mesa size Ref.
Barrier (nm) Well (nm)
AlAs (1.7) GaAs (4.5) 3.5 40 − [64]
Al0.3Ga0.7As (3.0) GaAs (4.5) 1.3 12 − [65]
AlAs (2.5) GaAs (4.5) 1.7 8 −
AlAs (1.5) GaAs (4.5) 3.5 40 −
AlAs (1.1) GaAs (4.5) 1.5 150 Φ =
4 μm		 [66]
Al0.3Ga0.7As (5.0) GaAs (5.0) 1.8 30 177 μm2
(Φ =
15 μm)		 [67]
AlAs (1.7) GaAs (5.0) 4.1 ± 0.1 48.8 ± 3.8 − [68]
3.8 ± 0.2 52.2 ± 2.2 −
AlAs (1.7) GaAs (4.5) 2.0 160 Φ =
3.5 μm		 [69]
AlAs (1.4) GaAs (5.1) 1.8 250 ± 20 (1−3) ×
5 μm2		 [70]
AlAs (1.7) GaAs (4.5) 2.0 140 ± 10
AlAs (1.4) GaAs (4.5) 1.7 200 ± 20
AlAs (1.7) GaAs (4.5) 5.0 35 49 [71]
AlAs (1.7) GaAs (5.0) 4.8 8.3 36 [72]
AlAs (4.0) GaAs (5.5) 1.45 − 900 [73]
AlAs (2.0) GaAs (5.0) 4.1 13.3 49 [74]
5.0 14.7
Al0.42Ga0.58As (5.0) GaAs (5.0) 3.9 0.61 520 [75]
Al0.42Ga0.58As (1.7) GaAs (5.0) 5.35 40 >16 [76]
AlAs (1.7) GaAs (4.0) 2.9 6 100 [77]
AlAs (4.0) GaAs (4.7) 2.9 2 2500 [78]
1.7 1.53 7500
AlAs (1.7) GaAs (4.5) 3.5 100 12 [79]
AlAs (1.96) GaAs (5.0) 4.0 20 75 [80]
AlAs (1.7) GaAs (6.5) 3.27 14.8 16 [32]
3.44 15.93 25
3.38 14.8 36
DownLoad: CSV

Table 6.   Applications of GaAs-based RTDs.

RTD as oscillator
Material system Operation frequency (GHz) Temperature (K) Output power (μW) Ref.
GaAs/AlGaAs 18 200 0.5 [84]
GaAs/AlAs 200 300 20 [64]
60 60
3 100
0.2 200
GaAs/AlAs 56 300 60 [65]
87 18
GaAs/AlAs 3 300 150 [66]
12 150
50 50
100 25
220 2
350 0.2
420
 0.2
GaAs/AlGaAs 2 to 12 300 − [67]
GaAs/AlAs 38.6 300 36 [69]
110 12
RTD as photodetector/light sensor and in single photon detection
Device scheme Wavelength (μm) Voltage (V) Absorption (%) Sensitivity (kA/W) Ref.
RTD with absorption layer 1.3 3.0 − 0.966 [85]
RTD integrated into DBR cavity 1.29 4.0 18.3 31.2 [86]
RTD integrated into DBR cavity 0.94 − 90 − [87]
Waveguide-integrated RTD 0.94 − > 90 (max 99) − [87]
RTD as pressure sensor
Material system Frequency (kHz) Sensitivity (kHz/MPa) Ref.
GaAs/AlGaAs 113 0.8 [88]
RTD as switch
Material system Switching time (ps) Voltage swing (mV) Ref.
GaAs/AlAs 20 60 [80]
RTD as subharmonic mixer
Material system Threshold voltage for
resonant tunneling (V)		 Temperature
(K)		 Local oscillation
power (dBm)		 Conversion loss
(dB)		 Ref.
GaAs/AlAs 0.75 Room temp. 12 11 [77]
RTD in triggering
Material system Frequency range (GHz) Time jitter (ps∙rms) Bandwidth (GHz) Ref.
GaAs/AlAs 5 to 50 <1 60 [79]
DownLoad: CSV
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    Received: 08 February 2023 Revised: 10 April 2023 Online: Accepted Manuscript: 19 June 2023Uncorrected proof: 20 June 2023Corrected proof: 06 September 2023Published: 10 October 2023

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      Article Navigation >  Journal of Semiconductors  > 2023  >  44(10): 103101
      Swagata Samanta. GaAs-based resonant tunneling diode: Device aspects from design, manufacturing, characterization and applications[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2023, 44(10): 103101. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/10/103101 ****S Samanta. GaAs-based resonant tunneling diode: Device aspects from design, manufacturing, characterization and applications[J]. J. Semicond, 2023, 44(10): 103101. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/10/103101
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      Swagata Samanta. GaAs-based resonant tunneling diode: Device aspects from design, manufacturing, characterization and applications[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2023, 44(10): 103101. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/10/103101 ****
      S Samanta. GaAs-based resonant tunneling diode: Device aspects from design, manufacturing, characterization and applications[J]. J. Semicond, 2023, 44(10): 103101. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/10/103101
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      GaAs-based resonant tunneling diode: Device aspects from design, manufacturing, characterization and applications

      DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/44/10/103101

      • Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SRM University-AP, Andhra Pradesh, India

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      • Swagata Samanta：received her PhD from Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur (IIT Kgp). She continued her research as a postdoctoral fellow at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore and then at the University of Glasgow, UK. She is presently an Assistant Professor at SRM University, Andhra Pradesh, India. Her research interests include novel on-chip nanophotonic and nanoelectronic devices, integrated optics, neuromorphic circuits, VLSI systems, image/video processing, and artificial intelligence. She has authored and coauthored, as well as reviewed, several prestigious peer-reviewed papers that have been presented at international conferences and published in academic journals
      • Corresponding author: swagata.s@srmap.edu.in
      • Received Date: 2023-02-08
      • Revised Date: 2023-04-10
        • Available Online: 2023-06-19

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