J. Semicond. > 2021, Volume 42 > Issue 3 > 031701
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REVIEWS

Low-dimensional materials for photovoltaic application

Rokas Kondrotas1, 2, Chao Chen1, XinXing Liu1, Bo Yang1 and Jiang Tang1,

+ Author Affiliations

 Corresponding author: Jiang Tang, jtang@mail.hust.edu.cn

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/42/3/031701

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Abstract: The photovoltaic (PV) market is currently dominated by silicon based solar cells. However technological diversification is essential to promote competition, which is the driving force for technological growth. Historically, the choice of PV materials has been limited to the three-dimensional (3D) compounds with a high crystal symmetry and direct band gap. However, to meet the strict demands for sustainable PV applications, material space has been expanded beyond 3D compounds. In this perspective we discuss the potential of low-dimensional materials (2D, 1D) for application in PVs. We present unique features of low-dimensional materials in context of their suitability in the solar cells. The band gap, absorption, carrier dynamics, mobility, defects, surface states and growth kinetics are discussed and compared to 3D counterparts, providing a comprehensive view of prospects of low-dimensional materials. Structural dimensionality leads to a highly anisotropic carrier transport, complex defect chemistry and peculiar growth dynamics. By providing fundamental insights into these challenges we aim to deepen the understanding of low-dimensional materials and expand the scope of their application. Finally, we discuss the current research status and development trend of solar cell devices made of low-dimensional materials.

Key words: low-dimensional materials, photovoltaic, absorption, defect, anisotropy



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Fig. 1.  (Color online) The evolution of crystal structure and morphology of the grain as a function of structural dimensionality. CdTe, MoS2 and Sb2Se3 structures were selected as representative materials in each case. Grain morphology was calculated using Bravais−Friedel−Donnay−Harker (BFDH) theory[18].

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Fig. 2.  (Color online) (a) Photon absorption and carrier dynamics for a quasi-indirect band gap semiconductor. Photons are first absorbed via direct band gap (I) or indirect band gap (II), they then thermodynamically relax to the indirect band gap (III) and eventually recombine (IV). (b) The ratio of photons absorbed to the total number of photons (Ntotal, photon number in AM 1.5 G spectrum with energy larger than Eind) as a function of ΔE and Eind. The blue-dashed line indicates a boundary of the 85%. A1 and A2 of dashed line 1 are 105 and 104 cm–1; A1 and A2 of dashed line 2 are 4 × 104 and 104 cm–1; A1 and A2 of dashed line 3 are 2 × 104 and 104 cm–1; A1 and A2 of dashed line 4 are 2 × 104 and 103 cm–1. (c) The ratio of electrons in indirect band (Nind) to the total number of electrons (Ntotal) as a function of ΔE and temperature.

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Fig. 3.  (Color online) Point defects in Sb2Se3 taking into account, it contains two kinds of Sb and three kinds of Se. Reprinted from Chen et al.[27] with permission.

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Fig. 4.  (Color online) (a) Carrier movement in Sb2Se3 along [120] (red dashed arrows) and [221] (solid red arrow) directions. (b) Atomistic view of Sb2Se3 grain boundary oriented [001] direction perpendicular to substrate. All of the atoms at the edge of these ribbons are saturated (highlighted as red spheres) and introduce no recombination loss at the GBs. Reprinted from Tang et al. with permission[29].

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Fig. 5.  (Color online) Layered crystal structure of SnS with Pnma space group and calculated morphology of the grain based on the surface energy. Surface energy (SE), EA and IP of various SnS facets. Printed with permission[61].

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Fig. 6.  (Color online) Schematics of growth process of 3D and 1D materials on (a, b) inert and (c, d) strongly interacting substrates. (a) represents an island-like growth mode, whereas (c) layer-by-layer[62].

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Table 1.   Summary of low-dimensional material characteristics and champion solar cell PCE.

MaterialDimensionEgind (eV)ΔEg (eV)Anisotropy ratio*PV solar cell PCE (%)Application
(BA)2(MA)n–1 PbnI3n+12D1.5–2.300.28μ[34]12.53[35]LED, PV solar cells
SnS2D1.070.150.08μ[36]4.36[37]Thermoelectrics, PV solar cells
SnSe2D0.860.20.2σ[38]N/AThermoelectrics
CuSbSe22D1.040.04N/A4.7[39]PV solar cells, thermoelectrics
CuSbS22D1.40.050.15m*[40]3.22[41]PV solar cells, thermoelectrics
MoSe22D1.060.40~0.001–0.01σ[42]1.29[43]PEC, HER, batteries, transistors, PV solar cells
MoS22D1.290.300.006σ[44]2.8[45]PEC, HER, batteries, transistors, PV solar cells
GeSe2D1.10.100.33σ[46]1.48[47]PV solar cells
Sb2Se31D1.050.13~0.10σ[48]9.2[10]PV solar cells
Sb2S31D1.70.08~0.10σ[49]7.5 [50]PV solar cells, HTL
Sb2(S,Se)31D1.49N/AN/A10.5[51]PV solar cells
Bi3S31D1.350.100.32μ[52]0.75[53]Thermoelectrics, PV solar cells
SbSI1D2.150.200.31σ[54]3.05[55]PV solar cells, ferroelectric
BiOI2D1.930.4N/A1.82[56]PV solar cells
Se1D1.840N/A~6.5[57]PV solar cells
*Anisotropy ratio expressed in terms of: μ - mobility, m* - effective mass, σ - conductivity.
DownLoad: CSV
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Philipps S. Photovoltaics report. Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems, 2019
[2]
Green M A, Hishikawa Y, Dunlop E D, et al. Solar cell efficiency tables (version 52). Pro Photovolt, 2018, 26(7), 427 doi: 10.1002/pip.3040
[3]
Alharbi F, Bass J D, Salhi A, et al. Abundant non-toxic materials for thin film solar cells: Alternative to conventional materials. Renew Energ, 2011, 36(10), 2753 doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2011.03.010
[4]
Jean J, Brown P R, Jaffe R L, et al. Pathways for solar photovoltaics. Energy Environ Sci, 2015, 8(4), 1200 doi: 10.1039/C4EE04073B
[5]
Lei H, Chen J, Tan Z, et al. Review of recent progress in antimony chalcogenide-based solar cells: Materials and devices. Solar RRL, 2019, 3(6), 1900026 doi: 10.1002/solr.201900026
[6]
Mavlonov A, Razykov T, Raziq F, et al. A review of Sb2Se3 photovoltaic absorber materials and thin-film solar cells. Sol Energy, 2020, 201, 227 doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2020.03.009
[7]
Wong L H, Zakutayev A, Major J D, et al. Emerging inorganic solar cell efficiency tables (Version 1). J Phys: Energy, 2019, 1(3), 032001 doi: 10.1088/2515-7655/ab2338
[8]
Yu L, Kokenyesi R S, Keszler D A, et al. Inverse design of high absorption thin-film photovoltaic materials. Adv Energy Mater, 2013, 3(1), 43 doi: 10.1002/aenm.201200538
[9]
Phillips L J, Savory C N, Hutter O S, et al. Current enhancement via a TiO2 window layer for CSS Sb2Se3 solar cells: Performance limits and high VOC. IEEE J Photovolt, 2019, 9(2), 544 doi: 10.1109/JPHOTOV.2018.2885836
[10]
Li Z, Liang X, Li G, et al. 9.2%-efficient core-shell structured antimony selenide nanorod array solar cells. Nat Commun, 2019, 10(1), 125 doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-07903-6
[11]
Liu C, Wang L, Tang Y, et al. Vertical single or few-layer MoS2 nanosheets rooting into TiO2 nanofibers for highly efficient photocatalytic hydrogen evolution. Appl Catal B, 2015, 164, 1 doi: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2014.08.046
[12]
Chuang H J, Chamlagain B, Koehler M, et al. Low-resistance 2D/2D ohmic contacts: A universal approach to high-performance WSe2, MoS2, and MoSe2 transistors. Nano Lett, 2016, 16(3), 1896 doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b05066
[13]
Zhao M, Su J, Zhao Y, et al. Sodium-mediated epitaxial growth of 2D ultrathin Sb2Se3 flakes for broadband photodetection. Adv Funct Mater, 2020, 30(13), 1909849 doi: 10.1002/adfm.201909849
[14]
Chen Z G, Shi X, Zhao L D, et al. High-performance SnSe thermoelectric materials: Progress and future challenge. Prog Mater Sci, 2018, 97, 283 doi: 10.1016/j.pmatsci.2018.04.005
[15]
Wu T, Zhang H. Piezoelectricity in two-dimensional materials. Angew Chem Int Ed, 2015, 54(15), 4432 doi: 10.1002/anie.201411335
[16]
Niu S, Joe G, Zhao H, et al. Giant optical anisotropy in a quasi-one-dimensional crystal. Nat Photonics, 2018, 12(7), 392 doi: 10.1038/s41566-018-0189-1
[17]
Tian H, Tice J, Fei R, et al. Low-symmetry two-dimensional materials for electronic and photonic applications. Nano Today, 2016, 11(6), 763 doi: 10.1016/j.nantod.2016.10.003
[18]
Donnay J D H, Harker D. A new law of crystal morphology extending the law of Bravais. Am Mineral, 1937, 22(5), 446
[19]
Brandt R E, Poindexter J R, Gorai P, et al. Searching for “defect-tolerant” photovoltaic materials: Combined theoretical and experimental screening. Chem Mater, 2017, 29(11), 4667 doi: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.6b05496
[20]
Othonos A. Probing ultrafast carrier and phonon dynamics in semiconductors. J App Phys, 1998, 83(4), 1789 doi: 10.1063/1.367411
[21]
Hutter E M, Gélvez-Rueda M C, Osherov A, et al. Direct–indirect character of the bandgap in methylammonium lead iodide perovskite. Nat Mater, 2016, 16, 115 doi: 10.1038/nmat4765
[22]
Saliba M, Correa-Baena J P, Wolff C M, et al. How to make over 20% efficient perovskite solar cells in regular (n–i–p) and inverted (p–i–n) architectures. Chem Mater, 2018, 30(13), 4193 doi: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.8b00136
[23]
Walsh A, Zunger A. Instilling defect tolerance in new compounds. Nat Mater, 2017, 16, 964 doi: 10.1038/nmat4973
[24]
Vidal J, Lany S, d’Avezac M, et al. Band-structure, optical properties, and defect physics of the photovoltaic semiconductor SnS. Appl Phys Lett, 2012, 100(3), 032104 doi: 10.1063/1.3675880
[25]
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    Received: 04 August 2020 Revised: 27 September 2020 Online: Accepted Manuscript: 10 November 2020Uncorrected proof: 11 November 2020Published: 10 March 2021

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      Article Navigation >  Journal of Semiconductors  > 2021  >  42(3): 031701
      Rokas Kondrotas, Chao Chen, XinXing Liu, Bo Yang, Jiang Tang. Low-dimensional materials for photovoltaic application[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2021, 42(3): 031701. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/42/3/031701 ****R Kondrotas, C Chen, X X Liu, B Yang, J Tang, Low-dimensional materials for photovoltaic application[J]. J. Semicond., 2021, 42(3): 031701. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/42/3/031701.
      Citation:
      Rokas Kondrotas, Chao Chen, XinXing Liu, Bo Yang, Jiang Tang. Low-dimensional materials for photovoltaic application[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2021, 42(3): 031701. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/42/3/031701 ****
      R Kondrotas, C Chen, X X Liu, B Yang, J Tang, Low-dimensional materials for photovoltaic application[J]. J. Semicond., 2021, 42(3): 031701. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/42/3/031701.
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      Low-dimensional materials for photovoltaic application

      DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/42/3/031701
      • 1.

        Sargent Joint Research Center, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics and School of Optical and Electronic Information, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China

      • 2.

        Center for Physical Sciences and Technology, Sauletekio 3, Vilnius 10257, Lithuania

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      • Rokas Kondrotas：earned his Ph.D. in Center for Physical Sciences and Technology (CPST) in 2015. Then he worked as a post-doc in Catalonia Institute for Energy Research for one year and in WNLO for two years. After that, Rokas returned to CPST. His research is thin film solar cells
      • Chao Chen：received his Ph.D. from Huazhong University of Science and Technology in 2019. Now, he is a postdoctoral fellow at the Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology. His research interests are antimony chalcogenide thin-film solar cells and photodetectors
      • Jiang Tang：received his Ph.D. from the University of Toronto in 2010. He joined Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology as a full professor in 2012. His research interests include Sb2Se3 solar cells, metal halides for X-ray detection, PbS CQD imaging sensor, and halide perovskiteLED
      • Corresponding author: jtang@mail.hust.edu.cn
      • Received Date: 2020-08-04
      • Revised Date: 2020-09-27
      • Published Date: 2021-03-10

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