J. Semicond. > 2025, Volume 46 > Issue 1 > 011604
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Neurotransmitter-mediated artificial synapses based on organic electrochemical transistors for future biomimic and bioinspired neuromorphic systems

Miao Cheng1, 2, 3, §, Yifan Xie1, §, Jinyao Wang1, §, Qingqing Jin1, Yue Tian1, Changrui Liu1, Jingyun Chu1, Mengmeng Li1, 2, 3, and Ling Li1, 2, 3,

+ Author Affiliations

 Corresponding author: Mengmeng Li, limengmeng@ime.ac.cn; Ling Li, lingli@ime.ac.cn

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/24090013CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.24090013

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Abstract: Organic electrochemical transistors have emerged as a solution for artificial synapses that mimic the neural functions of the brain structure, holding great potentials to break the bottleneck of von Neumann architectures. However, current artificial synapses rely primarily on electrical signals, and little attention has been paid to the vital role of neurotransmitter-mediated artificial synapses. Dopamine is a key neurotransmitter associated with emotion regulation and cognitive processes that needs to be monitored in real time to advance the development of disease diagnostics and neuroscience. To provide insights into the development of artificial synapses with neurotransmitter involvement, this review proposes three steps towards future biomimic and bioinspired neuromorphic systems. We first summarize OECT-based dopamine detection devices, and then review advances in neurotransmitter-mediated artificial synapses and resultant advanced neuromorphic systems. Finally, by exploring the challenges and opportunities related to such neuromorphic systems, we provide a perspective on the future development of biomimetic and bioinspired neuromorphic systems.

Key words: artificial synapses, organic electrochemical transistors, neurotransmitters, neuromorphic systems



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Fig. 1.  (Color online) Concept of artificial synapses with neurotransmitters-mediated functions. OECTs structures are similar to biological synapses, and neurotransmitter-mediated artificial synapses have potential implications in the fields of neuroscience, disease diagnosis, neuromorphic computing, and neuroprosthetics.

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Fig. 2.  (Color online) Mechanism of OECTs. (a) Depletion and (b) accumulation mode of OECTs. (c) Two circuits (electronic and ionic circuits) used to model OECTs.

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Fig. 3.  (Color online) Working principle of OECTs for DA detection. (a) Schematic of DA oxidation on the OECT gate surface. The electrodes can be modified by nanoparticles (NPs), carbon materials, aptamers, molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), etc. (b) Potential changes in OECTs. (c) ID changed over time as DA was added[41]. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2011, Elsevier. (d) Curve of ΔVg-eff versus change in DA concentration[41]. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2011, Elsevier.

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Fig. 4.  (Color online) (a) Electrochemical synthesis of DA-specific o-MIP at gate. (b) Operation principle of aptamer immobilization. (c) Real-time detection of neurotransmitter released in rat brain by OECT array. Reproduced with permission[42]. Copyright 2020, eLife Sciences Publications, Ltd.

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Fig. 5.  (Color online) Synaptic plasticity of OECTs. (a) Excitatory postsynaptic current (EPSC)[76]. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2019, Wiley. (b) Paired-pulse facilitation (PPF, A2/A1)[76]. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2019, Wiley. (c) Retention curves for synaptic weight after different number of applied pulses, showing STP−LTP[77]. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2021, Springer Nature. (d) and (e) An artificial fiber bio-hybrid synapse with DA-mediated plasticity[78]. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2024, Wiley.

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Fig. 6.  (Color online) Biologically integrated neuromorphic systems. (a) and (b) A biological neuron and the OAN. Reproduced with permission[85]. Copyright 2022, Springer Nature. (c) The OAN is sensitive to DA and exhibits neuronal spiking properties and excitability modulation. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2022, Springer Nature. (d) Neuromorphic artificial retinal pathways combining sensory coding and neuromodulation[86]. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2024, Springer Nature. (e) and (f) Closed-loop neuromorphic system and robotic actuation[14]. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2024, Royal Society of Chemistry.

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Table 1.   Comparisons of different OECT-based DA biosensors.

Gate materialsGate area (μm2)Channel size
(W/L (μm/μm))		LOD (M)Linear range (M)Sensitivity
(mV/dec)		Ref.
Aptamer-enhanced Au/30/225 × 10−165 × 10−12−10−9/[57]
9 × 106/1 × 10−1410−11−10−86.9 [58]
Pt9 × 10622/51 × 10−9 (AC)
1 × 10−8 (DC)		10−7−10−545.2[48]
4.8 × 10540/103 × 10−83 × 10−8−1 × 10−7/[42]
/6000/100<5 × 10−95 × 10−8 −3 × 10−6174[41]
Vertical Pt wire2.8 × 105700/19004.4 × 10−6/410[59]
Nafion and graphene flakes co-modified Pt/6000/2005 × 10−95 × 10−9−1 × 10−6242[60]
Overoxidized MIP (o-MIP/Pt)/1000/203.4 × 10−84 × 10−7−1 × 10−5/[61]
Ag/AgCl pseudo reference/10/10/1 × 10−6−3 × 10−4279[62]
/5000/15504.3 × 10−81 × 10−9−1 × 10−40.312 mA/dec[44]
/1500/50003.7 × 10−85 × 10−8−1 × 10−4/[63]
Nitrogen/oxygen-codoped carbon cloths//1 × 10−91 × 10−6−3 × 10−4151[39]
Carbon/PEDOT: PSS3.9 × 10−20.45 × 0.45 × π (needle-typed)1 × 10−121 × 10−9−1.6 × 10−7
2 × 10−9−7 × 10−6		190 ± 20 pA/dec
210 ± 40 pA/dec		[64]
CNT/ (Pt NPs) fiber//5 × 10−95 × 10−9−5 × 10−7/[65]
rGO/CNT/PEDOT:PSS/240/776 × 10−61 × 10−5−1 × 10−4/[66]
Polypyrrole nanofiber//1 × 10−91 × 10−9− 1 × 10−6/[67]
PEDOT:PSS9 × 1063000/30006 × 10−65 × 10−6−1 × 10−4/[68]
Copper phthalocyanine/166/203.04 × 10−65 × 10−5−5 × 10−4/[16]
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Table 2.   Comparisons of DA-modulated artificial synapses based-OECTs.

TypeGate materialsKey propertiesDetailsRef.
Biohybrid synapseAu/PEDOT: PSSDA recycling/LTP/LTDOECT/microfluidic channel[12]
PEDOT: PSS fiberDA recyclingFiber OECT[78]
Artificial spiking neuronAg/AgClDA/ions sensitive and neuron spiking propertiesOECT[85]
AuDA/5-HT sensitive and neuron spiking properties/ biological functions of a retinal pathwayOECT/microfluidic channel[86]
Artificial synapsesAg ink
STP/LTP/flexibleFully printed dual-gate OECT[83]
ITOMimicking biological neurotransmitter coreleaseElectrical and optical modulation OECT/microfluidic channel[84]
Closed-loop neuromorphic systemPEDOT: PSSClosed-loop control, actuation and reinforcement learningOECT/microfluidic channel/robotic hand[14]
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    Received: 12 September 2024 Revised: 27 September 2024 Online: Accepted Manuscript: 01 November 2024Uncorrected proof: 05 December 2024Published: 15 January 2025

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      Article Navigation >  Journal of Semiconductors  > 2025  >  46(1): 011604
      Miao Cheng, Yifan Xie, Jinyao Wang, Qingqing Jin, Yue Tian, Changrui Liu, Jingyun Chu, Mengmeng Li, Ling Li. Neurotransmitter-mediated artificial synapses based on organic electrochemical transistors for future biomimic and bioinspired neuromorphic systems[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2025, 46(1): 011604. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/24090013 ****M Cheng, Y F Xie, J Y Wang, Q Q Jin, Y Tian, C R Liu, J Y Chu, M M Li, and L Li, Neurotransmitter-mediated artificial synapses based on organic electrochemical transistors for future biomimic and bioinspired neuromorphic systems[J]. J. Semicond., 2025, 46(1), 011604 doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/24090013
      Citation:
      Miao Cheng, Yifan Xie, Jinyao Wang, Qingqing Jin, Yue Tian, Changrui Liu, Jingyun Chu, Mengmeng Li, Ling Li. Neurotransmitter-mediated artificial synapses based on organic electrochemical transistors for future biomimic and bioinspired neuromorphic systems[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2025, 46(1): 011604. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/24090013 ****
      M Cheng, Y F Xie, J Y Wang, Q Q Jin, Y Tian, C R Liu, J Y Chu, M M Li, and L Li, Neurotransmitter-mediated artificial synapses based on organic electrochemical transistors for future biomimic and bioinspired neuromorphic systems[J]. J. Semicond., 2025, 46(1), 011604 doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/24090013
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      Neurotransmitter-mediated artificial synapses based on organic electrochemical transistors for future biomimic and bioinspired neuromorphic systems

      DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/24090013
      CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.24090013
      • 1.

        Key Lab of Fabrication Technologies for Integrated Circuits, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China

      • 2.

        Institute of Microelectronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China

      • 3.

        University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049 Beijing, China

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      • Miao Cheng received his bachelor's degree at Lanzhou University. Now he is a PhD student at the Institute of Microelectronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, in Beijing under the supervision of Prof. Mengmeng Li. His research interests include organic electrochemical transistor and optoelectronic devices
      • Yifan Xie received his bachelor's degree at Beijing Normal University. Now he is a PhD student at the Institute of Microelectronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, in Beijing, under the supervision of Prof. Mengmeng Li. His research interests include organic semiconducting transistors and flexible electronics
      • Mengmeng Li is currently working as a full professor at the Institute of Microelectronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, in Beijing. He obtained his PhD at the Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research in Germany. Afterward, he joined Eindhoven University of Technology and the Dutch Institute for Fundamental Energy Research as a senior researcher for his independent research, where he was awarded the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Individual Fellowship (European Commission) and a Talent Programme Veni grant (NWO), respectively. His current research interests include organic thin-film transistors, flexible electronics and new physics on the nanoscale
      • Ling Li is currently working as a deputy director and professor at the Institute of Microelectronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, in Beijing. He obtained bachelor degree in University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, master degree in Institute of Microelectronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China and PhD degree in Vienna University of Technology, Austria. He later worked as a research professor at Kyung Hee University in South Korea. As the project leader and technical backbone, he has participated in more than ten national, provincial and ministerial level scientific research projects, including 863 Program projects, National Key Research and Development Program, National Natural Science Foundation of China Distinguished Youth Program, CAS Pioneer Special Projects, etc. In addition, he has published more than 100 papers in Nature Communications, Nano Letters, and top microelectronics conferences such as IEDM and VLSI, and applied for more than 50 invention patents
      • Corresponding author: limengmeng@ime.ac.cn; lingli@ime.ac.cn
      • Received Date: 2024-09-12
      • Revised Date: 2024-09-27
        • Available Online: 2024-11-01

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