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Living electronics meets semiconducting hydrogels

Biqin Yang, Zhi Zhang and Ting Lei

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 Corresponding author: Zhi Zhang, zhizhang@pku.edu.cn; Ting Lei, tinglei@pku.edu.cn

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/26020009CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.26020009

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[1]
Rodrigo-Navarro A, Sankaran S, Dalby M J, et al. Engineered living biomaterials. Nat Rev Mater, 2021, 6(12): 1175 doi: 10.1038/s41578-021-00350-8
[2]
Kim S, Eig E, Tian B Z. The convergence of bioelectronics and engineered living materials. Cell Rep Phys Sci, 2024, 5(9): 102149 doi: 10.1016/j.xcrp.2024.102149
[3]
Huang H, Chen X N, Bai J, et al. The rise of hydrogel transistors. Nat Rev Electr Eng, 2026, 3(1): 61 doi: 10.1038/s44287-025-00231-0
[4]
Cullen D K, Patel A R, Doorish J F, et al. Developing a tissue-engineered neural-electrical relay using encapsulated neuronal constructs on conducting polymer fibers. J Neural Eng, 2008, 5(4): 374 doi: 10.1088/1741-2560/5/4/002
[5]
Purcell E K, Seymour J P, Yandamuri S, et al. In vivo evaluation of a neural stem cell-seeded prosthesis. J Neural Eng, 2009, 6(2): 026005 doi: 10.1088/1741-2560/6/2/026005
[6]
Goding J, Robles U A, Poole-Warren L, et al. A living electrode construct for incorporation of cells into bionic devices. MRS Commun, 2017, 7(3): 487 doi: 10.1557/mrc.2017.44
[7]
Rochford A E, Carnicer-Lombarte A, Kawan M, et al. Functional neurological restoration of amputated peripheral nerve using biohybrid regenerative bioelectronics. Sci Adv, 2023, 9(12): eadd8162 doi: 10.1126/sciadv.add8162
[8]
Krawczyk K, Xue S, Buchmann P, et al. Electrogenetic cellular insulin release for real-time glycemic control in type 1 diabetic mice. Science, 2020, 368(6494): 993 doi: 10.1126/science.aau7187
[9]
Shi J Y, Kim S, Li P J, et al. Active biointegrated living electronics for managing inflammation. Science, 2024, 384(6699): 1023 doi: 10.1126/science.adl1102
[10]
Mimee M, Nadeau P, Hayward A, et al. An ingestible bacterial-electronic system to monitor gastrointestinal health. Science, 2018, 360(6391): 915 doi: 10.1126/science.aas9315
[11]
Chen B Z, Kang W, Sun J, et al. Programmable living assembly of materials by bacterial adhesion. Nat Chem Biol, 2022, 18(3): 289 doi: 10.1038/s41589-021-00934-z
[12]
Wang Z H, Bai H T, Yu W, et al. Flexible bioelectronic device fabricated by conductive polymer–based living material. Sci Adv, 2022, 8(25): eabo1458 doi: 10.1126/sciadv.abo1458
[13]
Rivnay J, Raman R, Robinson J T, et al. Integrating bioelectronics with cell-based synthetic biology. Nat Rev Bioeng, 2025, 3(4): 317 doi: 10.1038/s44222-024-00262-6
[14]
Keene S T, Lubrano C, Kazemzadeh S, et al. A biohybrid synapse with neurotransmitter-mediated plasticity. Nat Mater, 2020, 19(9): 969 doi: 10.1038/s41563-020-0703-y
[15]
Gao Y, Zhou Y C, Ji X D, et al. A hybrid transistor with transcriptionally controlled computation and plasticity. Nat Commun, 2024, 15: 1598 doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-45759-1
[16]
Li P Y, Sun W X, Li J L, et al. N-type semiconducting hydrogel. Science, 2024, 384(6695): 557 doi: 10.1126/science.adj4397
[17]
Dai Y H, Wai S, Li P J, et al. Soft hydrogel semiconductors with augmented biointeractive functions. Science, 2024, 386(6720): 431 doi: 10.1126/science.adp9314
[18]
Liu D Y, Bai J, Tian X Y, et al. Increasing the dimensionality of transistors with hydrogels. Science, 2025, 390(6775): 824 doi: 10.1126/science.adx4514
[19]
Atkinson J T, Su L, Zhang X, et al. Real-time bioelectronic sensing of environmental contaminants. Nature, 2022, 611(7936): 548 doi: 10.1038/s41586-022-05356-y
Fig. 1.  (Color online) Overview of living electronics and semiconducting hydrogels: applications and future prospects. This schematic illustrates semiconducting hydrogels could serve as an ideal platform for living electronics, enabled by their bulk sensing capability, mechanical softness, intrinsic porosity, efficient ion-electron coupling and logical operation ability.

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Fig. 2.  (Color online) (a) Induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)–derived myocytes on flexible electrode arrays[7]. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[7]; Copyright (2023) the author(s) under the terms of the Creative Commons CC BY license. (b) Three-dimensional model of a bioelectronic implant integrated with engineered electrosensitive human β cells for diabetes management[8]. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[8]; Copyright (2020) The American Association for the Advancement of Science. (c) An ingestible bacterial-electronic system for gastrointestinal health monitoring[10]. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[10]; Copyright (2018) The American Association for the Advancement of Science. (d) Genetic logic gate based on bio-hybrid OECT[15]. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[15]; Copyright (2024) the author(s) under the terms of the Creative Commons CC BY license. (e) Illustration of the working mechanism of an n-type semiconducting hydrogel[16]. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[16]; Copyright (2024) The American Association for the Advancement of Science. (f) Mouse electrocorticography (ECoG) recording with a complementary inverter based on n-type semiconducting hydrogel[16]. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[16]; Copyright (2024) The American Association for the Advancement of Science. (g) Comparison of the surface sensing in conventional biosensors vs. the bulk sensing effect of semiconducting hydrogels[17]. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[17]; Copyright (2024) The American Association for the Advancement of Science. (h) Photograph of a PEDOT-based 3D hydrogel OECT[18]. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[18]; Copyright (2025) The American Association for the Advancement of Science.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint
[1]
Rodrigo-Navarro A, Sankaran S, Dalby M J, et al. Engineered living biomaterials. Nat Rev Mater, 2021, 6(12): 1175 doi: 10.1038/s41578-021-00350-8
[2]
Kim S, Eig E, Tian B Z. The convergence of bioelectronics and engineered living materials. Cell Rep Phys Sci, 2024, 5(9): 102149 doi: 10.1016/j.xcrp.2024.102149
[3]
Huang H, Chen X N, Bai J, et al. The rise of hydrogel transistors. Nat Rev Electr Eng, 2026, 3(1): 61 doi: 10.1038/s44287-025-00231-0
[4]
Cullen D K, Patel A R, Doorish J F, et al. Developing a tissue-engineered neural-electrical relay using encapsulated neuronal constructs on conducting polymer fibers. J Neural Eng, 2008, 5(4): 374 doi: 10.1088/1741-2560/5/4/002
[5]
Purcell E K, Seymour J P, Yandamuri S, et al. In vivo evaluation of a neural stem cell-seeded prosthesis. J Neural Eng, 2009, 6(2): 026005 doi: 10.1088/1741-2560/6/2/026005
[6]
Goding J, Robles U A, Poole-Warren L, et al. A living electrode construct for incorporation of cells into bionic devices. MRS Commun, 2017, 7(3): 487 doi: 10.1557/mrc.2017.44
[7]
Rochford A E, Carnicer-Lombarte A, Kawan M, et al. Functional neurological restoration of amputated peripheral nerve using biohybrid regenerative bioelectronics. Sci Adv, 2023, 9(12): eadd8162 doi: 10.1126/sciadv.add8162
[8]
Krawczyk K, Xue S, Buchmann P, et al. Electrogenetic cellular insulin release for real-time glycemic control in type 1 diabetic mice. Science, 2020, 368(6494): 993 doi: 10.1126/science.aau7187
[9]
Shi J Y, Kim S, Li P J, et al. Active biointegrated living electronics for managing inflammation. Science, 2024, 384(6699): 1023 doi: 10.1126/science.adl1102
[10]
Mimee M, Nadeau P, Hayward A, et al. An ingestible bacterial-electronic system to monitor gastrointestinal health. Science, 2018, 360(6391): 915 doi: 10.1126/science.aas9315
[11]
Chen B Z, Kang W, Sun J, et al. Programmable living assembly of materials by bacterial adhesion. Nat Chem Biol, 2022, 18(3): 289 doi: 10.1038/s41589-021-00934-z
[12]
Wang Z H, Bai H T, Yu W, et al. Flexible bioelectronic device fabricated by conductive polymer–based living material. Sci Adv, 2022, 8(25): eabo1458 doi: 10.1126/sciadv.abo1458
[13]
Rivnay J, Raman R, Robinson J T, et al. Integrating bioelectronics with cell-based synthetic biology. Nat Rev Bioeng, 2025, 3(4): 317 doi: 10.1038/s44222-024-00262-6
[14]
Keene S T, Lubrano C, Kazemzadeh S, et al. A biohybrid synapse with neurotransmitter-mediated plasticity. Nat Mater, 2020, 19(9): 969 doi: 10.1038/s41563-020-0703-y
[15]
Gao Y, Zhou Y C, Ji X D, et al. A hybrid transistor with transcriptionally controlled computation and plasticity. Nat Commun, 2024, 15: 1598 doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-45759-1
[16]
Li P Y, Sun W X, Li J L, et al. N-type semiconducting hydrogel. Science, 2024, 384(6695): 557 doi: 10.1126/science.adj4397
[17]
Dai Y H, Wai S, Li P J, et al. Soft hydrogel semiconductors with augmented biointeractive functions. Science, 2024, 386(6720): 431 doi: 10.1126/science.adp9314
[18]
Liu D Y, Bai J, Tian X Y, et al. Increasing the dimensionality of transistors with hydrogels. Science, 2025, 390(6775): 824 doi: 10.1126/science.adx4514
[19]
Atkinson J T, Su L, Zhang X, et al. Real-time bioelectronic sensing of environmental contaminants. Nature, 2022, 611(7936): 548 doi: 10.1038/s41586-022-05356-y

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    Received: 05 February 2026 Revised: 01 April 2026 Online: Accepted Manuscript: 21 April 2026

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      Article Navigation >  Journal of Semiconductors  > 2026  > Accepted Manuscript
      Biqin Yang, Zhi Zhang, Ting Lei. Living electronics meets semiconducting hydrogels[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2026, In Press. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26020009 ****B Q Yang, Z Zhang, and T Lei, Living electronics meets semiconducting hydrogels[J]. J. Semicond., 2026, accepted doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26020009
      Citation:
      Biqin Yang, Zhi Zhang, Ting Lei. Living electronics meets semiconducting hydrogels[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2026, In Press. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26020009 ****
      B Q Yang, Z Zhang, and T Lei, Living electronics meets semiconducting hydrogels[J]. J. Semicond., 2026, accepted doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26020009
      shu

      Living electronics meets semiconducting hydrogels

      DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/26020009
      CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.26020009

      • National Key Laboratory of Advanced Micro and Nano Manufacture Technology, Key Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and Physics of Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China

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      • Biqin Yang obtained his B.E. degree in Biomedical Engineering from Sichuan University. He is currently pursuing a Ph.D. in Materials Science at the School of Materials Science and Engineering, Peking University. His research focuses on novel bioelectronic materials and devices with advanced biocompatibility and biofunctional properties
      • Zhi Zhang received her Ph.D. degree from Donghua University in 2020 and conducted postdoctoral research at Peking University from 2021 to 2023. She is currently an Associate Professor at the School of Materials Science and Engineering, Peking University. Her research focuses on organic semiconducting materials and flexible bioelectronics
      • Ting Lei obtained his B.S. and Ph.D. degrees from Peking University in 2008 and 2013. He conducted postdoctoral research at Stanford University with Prof. Zhenan Bao from 2013 to 2018. He is currently a Boya Distinguished Professor at the School of Materials Science and Engineering, Peking University. His research focuses on organic or polymeric functional materials and their applications in flexible electronics and bioelectronics
      • Corresponding author: zhizhang@pku.edu.cn; tinglei@pku.edu.cn
      • Received Date: 2026-02-05
      • Revised Date: 2026-04-01
        • Available Online: 2026-04-21

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