Organic electrochemical transistor-based theranostics: materials, mechanisms, and system integration

Runxue Wei; Zinuo Li; Qiuchun Lu; Jia-Han Zhang; Xidi Sun

doi:10.1088/1674-4926/26040015

J. Semicond. > Just Accepted

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Organic electrochemical transistor-based theranostics: materials, mechanisms, and system integration

Runxue Wei¹, Zinuo Li⁵, Qiuchun Lu^2,, Jia-Han Zhang^{3, 4,} and Xidi Sun^1,

+ Author Affiliations

1. Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
2. Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Singapore, 117575, Singapore
3. School of Electronic Information Engineering, Electronic-Photonic Smart Sensing Device R & D Team, Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Intelligent Communication and Sensing and Signal Processing, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, 010021 China
4. Inner Mongolia BKJD Robot Co., Ltd., Baotou 014020, China
5. School of Stomatology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China

Author Bio:

Runxue Wei received the B.S. degree in Applied Chemistry from Jinan University, Guangdong, China, in 2025, and the M.S. degree from the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, in 2026. Her current research interests include flexible sensors, intelligent materials, organic electrochemical transistors, and neuromorphic electronics.

Qiuchun Lu received her Ph.D. in Physics from Guangxi University in 2023 and is currently a postdoctoral fellow at the National University of Singapore. Her research focuses on solid oxide electrochemical cells, with emphasis on perovskite electrode design and reaction kinetics for high-efficiency low-temperature operation. She has also conducted research on semiconductor optoelectronic materials and micro-nano device fabrication.

Jia-Han Zhang is a Special-Term Professor at the Electronic-Photonic Smart Sensing Device R & D Team of the School of Electronic and Information Engineering at Inner Mongolia University. He received his Ph.D. degree from Nanjing University in 2024 under the supervision of Prof. Lijia Pan and Prof. Yi Shi. He received his M.E. degree from Inner Mongolia University of Science and Technology under the supervision of Prof. Xihong Hao in 2020. His current research interests mainly focus on flexible electronic-photonic information devices.

Xidi Sun received his Ph.D. degree from Nanjing University in 2025 under the supervision of Prof. Lijia Pan and Prof. Yi Shi. His research focuses on semiconductor materials and flexible electronic devices.

Corresponding author: Qiuchun Lu, qiuchun.lu@nus.edu.sg; Jia-Han Zhang, jiahan_zhang@outlook.com; Xidi Sun, xidisun@smail.nju.edu.cn

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040015CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.26040015

Abstract: Organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs), leveraged by their unique volumetric doping mechanism and ultra-high transconductance performance, have emerged as a pivotal device platform for constructing high-performance bioelectronic interfaces. OECT-based theranostics aim to develop intelligent closed-loop systems that integrate sensing, decision-making, and execution, thereby overcoming the latency and discretization limitations of traditional medical models when managing dynamic physiological fluctuations. This article systematically reviews the performance evolution of OECT materials from p-type to n-type, discusses critical strategies for enhancing device stability and transconductance density, such as side-chain engineering and ladder-type molecular design, while emphasizing the essential role of complementary logic circuits in minimizing the static power consumption of implantable electronics. Furthermore, breakthroughs in OECT-based neuromorphic computing are addressed; by simulating synaptic plasticity (STP/LTP) and engineering organic electrochemical neurons (OECNs), a highly efficient sensing-computing closed-loop architecture has been realized. The current application landscape of OECTs in electrophysiological monitoring, neurochemical sensing, and multimodal synergistic sensing is detailed, alongside a summary of high-density array fabrication and system integration strategies, including 3D printing, inkjet printing, and 3D hydrogel integration. Finally, future outlooks are provided, focusing on challenges such as the environmental stability of n-type materials, multimodal signal crosstalk, and long-term clinical reliability.

Keywords: organic electrochemical transistors, flexible, array, integration, theranostic

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Fig. 1. (Color online) (a) Schematic of a typical OECT device structure, along with the corresponding circuit connection and cross-sectional view of the device. (b) Operating mechanism of a depletion-mode OECT. (c) Operating mechanism of an accumulation-mode OECT. (d) Typical transfer characteristic curves (I_DS–V_GS) for p-type and n-type OECTs in accumulation-mode and depletion-mode operation.

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Fig. 2. (Color online) Timeline of the development and performance evolution of organic mixed-ion-electron conductors (OMIECs).

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Fig. 3. (Color online) Comparison of OECT performance parameters for copolymer and physical blend systems at different glycosylation levels. (a) Mobility-capacitance product (μC*). (b) Threshold voltage (V_th). (c) Volume capacitance (C*). and (d) extracted electron mobility (μ).^[43] Copyright © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH

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Fig. 4. (Color online) (a) Schematic diagram of the NF-vOECT structure, featuring a design with three layers of nanofiber networks stacked vertically. SEM images of the PAN/PVP nanofiber substrate before (I) and after (II) gold deposition, as well as the PEDOT:PSS/PAAm dual-network semiconductor nanofiber (III). (b) Schematic diagram of ECG acquisition using the NF-vOECT device and representative waveforms of five typical heartbeat categories, along with a comparison of ECGs acquired by the NF-vOECT and standard gel electrodes^[50]. (c) A smart closed-loop monitoring system integrating the NF-vOECT with hardware back-end components (AD8232 analog front-end, STM32 microcontroller, and Bluetooth module)^[51]. Copyright © 2026 Wiley-VCH GmbH, © 2025 American Chemical Society.

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Fig. 5. (Color online) The microfluidic ion pump probe system features an implantable architecture designed for high-resolution neural interfaces, facilitating electrophoretic GABA delivery that significantly outweighs passive diffusion when activated at 1 V. As demonstrated in the hippocampal experimental configuration, the probe operates alongside chemical induction to modulate K⁺ channels and action potentials, with its efficacy confirmed through the real-time recording of seizure-like events across multiple temporal scales^[65]. Copyright ©2018 the author

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Fig. 6. (Color online) (a) Textile-integrated organic bioelectronic fibers enabling skin-tight contact and stable electrophysiological signal acquisition. (b) Stretchable OECTs based on p(g2T-T) for skin sensing, showing device structure and stable current response under mechanical deformation^[71]. Copyright © 2022 The Authors. Advanced Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbHCopyright © 2024, The Author(s)

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Fig. 7. (Color online) (a) Schematic illustration of ion-electron coupled transport in the structure of a highly stretchable, wearable OECT and its device, fabricated from p(g2T-T) material. (b) Microscopic images of the p(g2T-T) film under 0% and 200% strain. (c) Optical microscope image (top) and corresponding atomic force microscope (AFM) image (bottom) of the stretched film (200% strain). (d) Transfer curves of the OECT under different tensile strains^[72]. Copyright© 2022 The Authors. Advanced Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH

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Fig. 9. (Color online) An all-in-one IWD based on OECTC for biomedical and neuroscience applications. IWDs provide solutions for simultaneous sensing and drug delivery. Multimodal and multilevel drug release capabilities of the OECT for biomedical applications. Devices with different trigger conditions can be responsible for releasing different doses or types of drugs. Neurotransmitter modulation capabilities of the OECT for neuroscience applications. The magnitude or type of the input neurotrans mitter can be altered with the assistance of the OECT^[85]. Copyright © 2025, The Author(s)

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Fig. 10. (Color online) (a) Nonlinear behavior of the networks: Optical microscope picture of a network, with four input channels and four output channels labeled (scale bar, 100 μm). Sketch of a network with E/I balance with highlighted excitatory and inhibitory nodes. Input signals injected to the four labeled channels and readout of the reservoir states measured at the four output channels. The Fourier transforms proof that the transfer function of the network is nonlinear: A multitude of new frequencies appear, proving the nonlinear projection performed by the reservoir. (b) Heartbeat classification using PEDOT networks^[92]. Copyright © 2021, The Author(s)

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Table 1. Comparison of OECT performance based on different materials.

Material	V_th (V)	μC* ( F·cm⁻¹·V⁻¹·S⁻¹)	g_m	On/off ratio	Electrolyte	Reference
PgNaN	0.37	0.662 ± 0.113	0.212 S·cm⁻¹	≈10⁴	N/R	[33]
P₃CPT	−0.1	N/R	26±2 mS	≈10³	Aqueous electrolyte	[34]
P3MEEET	0.4	11.5±1.4	20.4 S·cm⁻¹	N/R	0.1 M NaCl aqueous	[35]
BTMP EDOT/P3MEET	N/R	27.34	400 mS	≈10⁴	N/R	[36]
p(g2T-TT)	0.00 ± 0.01	299.42±5.15	15.8 mS	10⁵	0.1 M NaCl aqueous	[37]
p(p2T-TT)	−0.18 ± 0.01	182.24±16.5	15.1 mS	10⁵	0.1 M NaCl aqueous	[37]
p(b2T-TT)	−0.27 ± 0.01	342.2±12	19.4 mS	10⁵	0.1 M NaCl aqueous	[37]
PBBT-H	−0.36±0.01	2.52±0.07	1.11±0.02 S·cm⁻¹	≈10³	0.1 M NaCl aqueous	[38]
PBBT-Me	−0.52±0.02	92.3±5.0	40.6±1.5 S·cm⁻¹	≈10⁶	0.1 M NaCl aqueous	[38]
P3APPT	−0.58± 0.01	30.5±2.2	N/R	N/R	100mmol/L KCl(aq)	[39]
P(g0T2-g6T2)	0.18	302	8.1 mS	10⁴-10⁵	0.1 M NaCl aqueous	[40]
PDPP-2EG	−0.66	20	1.7 S cm⁻¹	N/R	N/R	[41]
PDPP-3EG	−0.61	491	76.3 S·cm⁻¹	N/R	N/R	[41]
PDPP-4EG	−0.60	702	137.1 S·cm⁻¹	105	N/R	[41]
PDPP-5EG	−0.60	346	63.3 S·cm⁻¹	N/R	N/R	[41]
pgBTTT	−0.18	530±240	5–20 mS	10⁴-10⁵	N/R	[42]
Note: The reported transconductance ($ {g}_{m} $) values were retained in their original forms because normalization methods and device geometries varied across different literature reports.

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Received: 15 April 2026 Revised: 12 May 2026 Online: Accepted Manuscript: 09 June 2026

Article Navigation > Journal of Semiconductors > 2026 > Accepted Manuscript

Runxue Wei, Zinuo Li, Qiuchun Lu, Jia-Han Zhang, Xidi Sun. Organic electrochemical transistor-based theranostics: materials, mechanisms, and system integration[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2026, In Press. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040015 ****R X Wei, Z N Li, Q C Lu, J H Zhang, and X D Sun, Organic electrochemical transistor-based theranostics: materials, mechanisms, and system integration[J]. J. Semicond., 2026, accepted doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040015

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Runxue Wei, Zinuo Li, Qiuchun Lu, Jia-Han Zhang, Xidi Sun. Organic electrochemical transistor-based theranostics: materials, mechanisms, and system integration[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2026, In Press. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040015 ****

R X Wei, Z N Li, Q C Lu, J H Zhang, and X D Sun, Organic electrochemical transistor-based theranostics: materials, mechanisms, and system integration[J]. J. Semicond., 2026, accepted doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040015

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Organic electrochemical transistor-based theranostics: materials, mechanisms, and system integration

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040015

CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.26040015

1.
Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
2.
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Singapore, 117575, Singapore
3.
School of Electronic Information Engineering, Electronic-Photonic Smart Sensing Device R & D Team, Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Intelligent Communication and Sensing and Signal Processing, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, 010021 China
4.
Inner Mongolia BKJD Robot Co., Ltd., Baotou 014020, China
5.
School of Stomatology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China

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Runxue Wei received the B.S. degree in Applied Chemistry from Jinan University, Guangdong, China, in 2025, and the M.S. degree from the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, in 2026. Her current research interests include flexible sensors, intelligent materials, organic electrochemical transistors, and neuromorphic electronics
Qiuchun Lu received her Ph.D. in Physics from Guangxi University in 2023 and is currently a postdoctoral fellow at the National University of Singapore. Her research focuses on solid oxide electrochemical cells, with emphasis on perovskite electrode design and reaction kinetics for high-efficiency low-temperature operation. She has also conducted research on semiconductor optoelectronic materials and micro-nano device fabrication
Jia-Han Zhang is a Special-Term Professor at the Electronic-Photonic Smart Sensing Device R & D Team of the School of Electronic and Information Engineering at Inner Mongolia University. He received his Ph.D. degree from Nanjing University in 2024 under the supervision of Prof. Lijia Pan and Prof. Yi Shi. He received his M.E. degree from Inner Mongolia University of Science and Technology under the supervision of Prof. Xihong Hao in 2020. His current research interests mainly focus on flexible electronic-photonic information devices
Xidi Sun received his Ph.D. degree from Nanjing University in 2025 under the supervision of Prof. Lijia Pan and Prof. Yi Shi. His research focuses on semiconductor materials and flexible electronic devices
Corresponding author: qiuchun.lu@nus.edu.sg; jiahan_zhang@outlook.com; xidisun@smail.nju.edu.cn
Received Date: 2026-04-15
Revised Date: 2026-05-12

Available Online: 2026-06-09

Abstract

Abstract

Organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs), leveraged by their unique volumetric doping mechanism and ultra-high transconductance performance, have emerged as a pivotal device platform for constructing high-performance bioelectronic interfaces. OECT-based theranostics aim to develop intelligent closed-loop systems that integrate sensing, decision-making, and execution, thereby overcoming the latency and discretization limitations of traditional medical models when managing dynamic physiological fluctuations. This article systematically reviews the performance evolution of OECT materials from p-type to n-type, discusses critical strategies for enhancing device stability and transconductance density, such as side-chain engineering and ladder-type molecular design, while emphasizing the essential role of complementary logic circuits in minimizing the static power consumption of implantable electronics. Furthermore, breakthroughs in OECT-based neuromorphic computing are addressed; by simulating synaptic plasticity (STP/LTP) and engineering organic electrochemical neurons (OECNs), a highly efficient sensing-computing closed-loop architecture has been realized. The current application landscape of OECTs in electrophysiological monitoring, neurochemical sensing, and multimodal synergistic sensing is detailed, alongside a summary of high-density array fabrication and system integration strategies, including 3D printing, inkjet printing, and 3D hydrogel integration. Finally, future outlooks are provided, focusing on challenges such as the environmental stability of n-type materials, multimodal signal crosstalk, and long-term clinical reliability.
- organic electrochemical transistors,
- flexible,
- array,
- integration,
- theranostic

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