Emerging trends of precision analog circuits in ISSCC 2026

Haihua Li; Dan Shi; Pui-In Mak; Rui P. Martins; Ka-Meng Lei

doi:10.1088/1674-4926/26040027

J. Semicond. > Just Accepted

RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS

Emerging trends of precision analog circuits in ISSCC 2026

Haihua Li^{1, §}, Dan Shi^{2, §}, Pui-In Mak¹, Rui P. Martins¹ and Ka-Meng Lei^1,

+ Author Affiliations

1. Institute of Microelectronics/Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Macau, Macao, China
2. School of Integrated Circuits, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
^§Haihua Li and Dan Shi contributed equally to this work.

Author Bio:

Haihua Li received the B.Sc. degree from Wuhan University in 2017 and the Ph.D. degree in Electrical and Computer Engineering from the University of Macau, Macao, China, in July 2025. After graduation, he continued at the University of Macau, where he is currently a post-doctoral fellow. His current research interests include low-power, high-performance frequency sources, temperature-stable ICs, and mixed-signal IC systems.

Dan Shi received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in microelectronics from Sichuan University, Chengdu, China, in 2016 and 2019, respectively. She received the Ph.D. degree in electrical and computer engineering (ECE) at the University of Macau, Macao, China, in 2025. She is currently serving as an Associate Professor at the School of Integrated Circuits, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, China. She worked as an analog circuits design engineer at IC company for two years from 2019 to 2021, where she was involved in high-speed clock, I/O interface, analog driven-circuit designs. Her current research focuses on the design of energy-efficient smart temperature sensors. She was a recipient of the student travel grant award (STGA) at the 2025 ISSCC. She serves as a technical reviewer for IEEE JSSC, TCAS-I, TCAS-II, and IEEE Sensors Journal.

Pui-In Mak received the Ph.D. degree from University of Macau (UM), Macao, China, in 2006. He is currently Chair Professor at UM Faculty of Science and Technology – ECE, and Director at the UM State Key Laboratory of Analog and Mixed-Signal VLSI and Deputy Director (Research) at the UM Institute of Microelectronics. His research interests are on analog and radio-frequency (RF) circuits and systems for wireless and multidisciplinary innovations. Prof. Mak received the Tencent Xplorer Prize in 2022, and is recognized as one of the Top Contributing Authors of ISSCC in 2023. He was inducted as an Overseas Expert of the Chinese Academy of Sciences since 2018. He is a Fellow of the IEEE, the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) and the UK Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC). He is a foreign academician of the Academy of Sciences of Lisbon, Portugal, since 2024. He received the Medal of Merit - Education from the Macao SAR government in 2024.

Rui P. Martins received the Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering and Computers from the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, University of Lisbon, Portugal, in 1992, and was with that Department between October 1980 and July 2025, where he retired as Full Professor. From 1992 to 2025, was on leave from University of Lisbon and with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Macau, Macao, China, where he is a Chair-Professor since Aug. 2013. His research interests are on analog and mixed-signal VLSI design. He was the Founding Director of the State Key Laboratory of Analog and Mixed-Signal VLSI, between 2011 and 2022, and is currently the Director of the Institute of Microelectronics, both at the University of Macau, Macao, China. Prof. Rui Martins is an IEEE Life Fellow, received an Author Recognition Award at the 70 years of ISSCC, in 2023, as a Top Contributor with more than 50 papers, 3 Medals from Macao Government in 1999, 2001 and 2021, a National Award for Electrical Engineering by “Ordem dos Engenheiros” in Portugal in 2024, the National Friendship Award (Medal) in China in 2025, and the “Comendador da Ordem do Mérito (ComM) (Medal) in Portugal in 2026. Since July 2010 he is an Academician with the Lisbon Academy of Sciences, Portugal.

Ka-Meng Lei received the B.Sc. degree in electrical and electronic engineering (EEE) and the Ph.D. degree in electrical and computer engineering (ECE) from the University of Macau, Macao, in 2012 and 2016, respectively. He is currently serving as an Associate professor at the University of Macau. Ka-Meng Lei has published 60+ refereed papers. He co-authored three books and two book chapters (all in SpringerNature). His current research interests include precision analog circuits, sensors and analog front-end interfaces, and high-resolution portable NMR platforms. Dr. Lei has been the ITPC Member of the ISSCC since 2026, and TPC Member of the IEEE International Conference on Integrated Circuits, Technologies and Applications (ICTA) since 2021. He currently serves as the Associate Editor of the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS and IEEE OPEN JOURNAL OF CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS.

Corresponding author: Ka-Meng Lei, kamenglei@um.edu.mo

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040027CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.26040027

References

[1]	Wang P, Wang M Y, Dai G N, et al. A 0.36nW, μm², 32kHz conduction-angle-adaptive crystal oscillator in 28nm CMOS for real-time clock applications. 2025 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2025: 80
[2]	Chlan T, Dietl M, Brederlow R. a 0.36nW/0.9V 32kHz crystal oscillator using analog regulation for cross-current avoidance. 2025 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2025: 1
[3]	Griffith D, Murdock J, Røine P T, et al. 5.9 A 37μW dual-mode crystal oscillator for single-crystal radios. 2015 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference-(ISSCC) Digest of Technical Papers, 2015: 1
[4]	Griffith D, Murdock J, Røine P T. 5.9 A 24MHz crystal oscillator with robust fast start-up using dithered injection. 2016 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2016: 104
[5]	Lei K M, Mak P I, Law M K, et al. A regulation-free sub-0.5V 16/24MHz crystal oscillator for energy-harvesting BLE radios with 14.2nJ startup energy and 31.8pW steady-state power. 2018 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference-(ISSCC), 2018: 52
[6]	Megawer K M, Pal N, Elkholy A, et al. A 54MHz crystal oscillator with 30 × 18.5 start-up time reduction using 2-step injection in 65nm CMOS. 2019 IEEE International Solid- State Circuits Conference-(ISSCC), 2019: 302
[7]	Cai Z K, Wang X, Wang Z X, et al. A 16MHz X0 with 17.5μs startup time under 104ppm-ΔF injection using automatic phase-error correction technique. 2023 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2023: 2
[8]	Li H, Lei K M, Mak P I, et al. A 12/13.56MHz crystal oscillator with binary-search-assisted two-step injection achieving 5.0nj startup energy and 45.8μs startup time. 2023 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2023: 64
[9]	Li H H, Shi D, Zhou Q, et al. A 0.6V 9.4µW 1, 892µm² current-pulse-injection crystal oscillator featuring capacitively biased amplifier with 242.2dBc/hz PN FoM @1KHz offset. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 1
[10]	Livanelioglu C, He L, Gong J, et al. A 4.6GHz 63.3fsrms PLL-XO co-design using a self-aligned pulse-injection driver achieving–255.2dB FoMJ including the XO power and noise. 2025 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2025: 342
[11]	Jung J, Kim S, Kim W, et al. A 52MHz-158.2dBc/hz PN @ 100kHz digitally controlled crystal oscillator utilizing a capacitive-load-dependent dynamic feedback resistor in 28nm CMOS. 2022 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2022: 60
[12]	Li Y X, Chen J J, Shen X Y, et al. A 0.65-to-1V-V_DD10.5-to-11.85GHz fractional-N sampling PLL achieving 71.47fs integrated jitter and-60dBc near-integer fractional spur in 40nm CMOS. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 218
[13]	Tang Z, Pan S N, Yu X P, et al. A 2.1-to-3.7ppm/°C bandgap voltage reference with a current-domain TC compensation and ±0.06% inaccuracy from –40°C to 125°C in 130nm CMOS. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 82
[14]	Rui J Q, Lyu L J, Wan Y T, et al. A 1ppm/°C and ±0.066% 3σ accuracy bandgap reference with temperature-adaptive PTAT scaling. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 84
[15]	Fang L L, Zhu Y, Martins R P, et al. An integrated voltage and current reference together achieving 5.7 and 9.1ppm/°C from –40 to 125°C. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 86
[16]	Lien B S, Liu S L, Lai W L, et al. 4.6 a 0.8V, 31ppm/°C, –40dB DC-to-GHz power-supply-rejection standard-vth core-MOS-only voltage reference with a 294 µm² Area. 2025 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2025: 1
[17]	Choi H, Kim J, Jung W, et al. A 0.6V 625um² fully stacked RC-based temperature sensor using low TCR metal resistor achieving 0.017nJ∙%²-accuracy FoM in 2nm gate-all-around process. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 372
[18]	Toth N G, Makinwa K A A. A background-calibrated NPN-based temperature sensor with 0.05°C (3σ) inaccuracy from –70°C to 125°C. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 370
[19]	Toth N G, Makinwa K A A. A BJT-based temperature sensor with an 80fJ∙ K² resolution FoM. 2025 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2025: 476
[20]	Shi D, Lei K M, Martins R P, et al. A 4, 100µm² wire-metal-based temperature sensor with a fractional-discharge FLL and a time-domain amplifier with ±0.2°C inaccuracy (3σ) from –40 to 125°C and 45 fJ∙K² resolution FoM in 28nm CMOS. 2025 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2025: 478
[21]	Qu T X, Wang N, Zhou K W, et al. 21.3 a temperature- and aging-compensated TMR current sensor with ±0.13% sensitivity variation from–40°C to 120°C. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 368
[22]	Kuang J J, Ming X, Gong X C, et al. A ±60mA-inaccuracy low-side average current sensor with operating-conditions-insensitive control supporting 0.1-to-3A load range and sub-100ns sample time for automotive USB charge application. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 1
[23]	Ma H, Zhang H, Fan Q. A -82.3dB THD+N 60V fully integrated shunt-resistor-based in-line current sensor with DLL-assisted dynamic body-biasing technique. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 380

Fig. 1. (Color online) Performance summary of MHz-range XO in recent years.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 2. (Color online) Performance summary of reported voltage references in recent years.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 3. (Color online) (a) Relative inaccuracy of recent CMOS temperature sensors (after 1-point trim) across the process nodes. (b) Trends of improvement in the CMOS temperature sensors’ resolution FoM in the recent decade.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

Fig. 4. (Color online) Summary of the reported current sensors in ISSCC’26 ^[21−23].

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

[1]	Wang P, Wang M Y, Dai G N, et al. A 0.36nW, μm², 32kHz conduction-angle-adaptive crystal oscillator in 28nm CMOS for real-time clock applications. 2025 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2025: 80
[2]	Chlan T, Dietl M, Brederlow R. a 0.36nW/0.9V 32kHz crystal oscillator using analog regulation for cross-current avoidance. 2025 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2025: 1
[3]	Griffith D, Murdock J, Røine P T, et al. 5.9 A 37μW dual-mode crystal oscillator for single-crystal radios. 2015 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference-(ISSCC) Digest of Technical Papers, 2015: 1
[4]	Griffith D, Murdock J, Røine P T. 5.9 A 24MHz crystal oscillator with robust fast start-up using dithered injection. 2016 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2016: 104
[5]	Lei K M, Mak P I, Law M K, et al. A regulation-free sub-0.5V 16/24MHz crystal oscillator for energy-harvesting BLE radios with 14.2nJ startup energy and 31.8pW steady-state power. 2018 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference-(ISSCC), 2018: 52
[6]	Megawer K M, Pal N, Elkholy A, et al. A 54MHz crystal oscillator with 30 × 18.5 start-up time reduction using 2-step injection in 65nm CMOS. 2019 IEEE International Solid- State Circuits Conference-(ISSCC), 2019: 302
[7]	Cai Z K, Wang X, Wang Z X, et al. A 16MHz X0 with 17.5μs startup time under 104ppm-ΔF injection using automatic phase-error correction technique. 2023 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2023: 2
[8]	Li H, Lei K M, Mak P I, et al. A 12/13.56MHz crystal oscillator with binary-search-assisted two-step injection achieving 5.0nj startup energy and 45.8μs startup time. 2023 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2023: 64
[9]	Li H H, Shi D, Zhou Q, et al. A 0.6V 9.4µW 1, 892µm² current-pulse-injection crystal oscillator featuring capacitively biased amplifier with 242.2dBc/hz PN FoM @1KHz offset. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 1
[10]	Livanelioglu C, He L, Gong J, et al. A 4.6GHz 63.3fsrms PLL-XO co-design using a self-aligned pulse-injection driver achieving–255.2dB FoMJ including the XO power and noise. 2025 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2025: 342
[11]	Jung J, Kim S, Kim W, et al. A 52MHz-158.2dBc/hz PN @ 100kHz digitally controlled crystal oscillator utilizing a capacitive-load-dependent dynamic feedback resistor in 28nm CMOS. 2022 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2022: 60
[12]	Li Y X, Chen J J, Shen X Y, et al. A 0.65-to-1V-V_DD10.5-to-11.85GHz fractional-N sampling PLL achieving 71.47fs integrated jitter and-60dBc near-integer fractional spur in 40nm CMOS. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 218
[13]	Tang Z, Pan S N, Yu X P, et al. A 2.1-to-3.7ppm/°C bandgap voltage reference with a current-domain TC compensation and ±0.06% inaccuracy from –40°C to 125°C in 130nm CMOS. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 82
[14]	Rui J Q, Lyu L J, Wan Y T, et al. A 1ppm/°C and ±0.066% 3σ accuracy bandgap reference with temperature-adaptive PTAT scaling. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 84
[15]	Fang L L, Zhu Y, Martins R P, et al. An integrated voltage and current reference together achieving 5.7 and 9.1ppm/°C from –40 to 125°C. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 86
[16]	Lien B S, Liu S L, Lai W L, et al. 4.6 a 0.8V, 31ppm/°C, –40dB DC-to-GHz power-supply-rejection standard-vth core-MOS-only voltage reference with a 294 µm² Area. 2025 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2025: 1
[17]	Choi H, Kim J, Jung W, et al. A 0.6V 625um² fully stacked RC-based temperature sensor using low TCR metal resistor achieving 0.017nJ∙%²-accuracy FoM in 2nm gate-all-around process. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 372
[18]	Toth N G, Makinwa K A A. A background-calibrated NPN-based temperature sensor with 0.05°C (3σ) inaccuracy from –70°C to 125°C. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 370
[19]	Toth N G, Makinwa K A A. A BJT-based temperature sensor with an 80fJ∙ K² resolution FoM. 2025 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2025: 476
[20]	Shi D, Lei K M, Martins R P, et al. A 4, 100µm² wire-metal-based temperature sensor with a fractional-discharge FLL and a time-domain amplifier with ±0.2°C inaccuracy (3σ) from –40 to 125°C and 45 fJ∙K² resolution FoM in 28nm CMOS. 2025 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2025: 478
[21]	Qu T X, Wang N, Zhou K W, et al. 21.3 a temperature- and aging-compensated TMR current sensor with ±0.13% sensitivity variation from–40°C to 120°C. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 368
[22]	Kuang J J, Ming X, Gong X C, et al. A ±60mA-inaccuracy low-side average current sensor with operating-conditions-insensitive control supporting 0.1-to-3A load range and sub-100ns sample time for automotive USB charge application. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 1
[23]	Ma H, Zhang H, Fan Q. A -82.3dB THD+N 60V fully integrated shunt-resistor-based in-line current sensor with DLL-assisted dynamic body-biasing technique. 2026 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2026: 380

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Received: 16 April 2026 Revised: 25 May 2026 Online: Accepted Manuscript: 11 June 2026

Article Navigation > Journal of Semiconductors > 2026 > Accepted Manuscript

Haihua Li, Dan Shi, Pui-In Mak, Rui P. Martins, Ka-Meng Lei. Emerging trends of precision analog circuits in ISSCC 2026[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2026, In Press. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040027 ****H H Li, D Shi, P I Mak, R P Martins, and K M Lei, Emerging trends of precision analog circuits in ISSCC 2026[J]. J. Semicond., 2026, 47(7): 070203 doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040027

Citation:

Haihua Li, Dan Shi, Pui-In Mak, Rui P. Martins, Ka-Meng Lei. Emerging trends of precision analog circuits in ISSCC 2026[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2026, In Press. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040027 ****

H H Li, D Shi, P I Mak, R P Martins, and K M Lei, Emerging trends of precision analog circuits in ISSCC 2026[J]. J. Semicond., 2026, 47(7): 070203 doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040027

Citation:

H H Li, D Shi, P I Mak, R P Martins, and K M Lei, Emerging trends of precision analog circuits in ISSCC 2026[J]. J. Semicond., 2026, 47(7): 070203 doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040027

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Emerging trends of precision analog circuits in ISSCC 2026

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040027

CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.26040027

Haihua Li^{1, §},
Dan Shi^{2, §},
Pui-In Mak¹,
Rui P. Martins¹,
Ka-Meng Lei^1,

1.
Institute of Microelectronics/Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Macau, Macao, China
2.
School of Integrated Circuits, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China

More Information

Haihua Li received the B.Sc. degree from Wuhan University in 2017 and the Ph.D. degree in Electrical and Computer Engineering from the University of Macau, Macao, China, in July 2025. After graduation, he continued at the University of Macau, where he is currently a post-doctoral fellow. His current research interests include low-power, high-performance frequency sources, temperature-stable ICs, and mixed-signal IC systems
Dan Shi received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in microelectronics from Sichuan University, Chengdu, China, in 2016 and 2019, respectively. She received the Ph.D. degree in electrical and computer engineering (ECE) at the University of Macau, Macao, China, in 2025. She is currently serving as an Associate Professor at the School of Integrated Circuits, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, China. She worked as an analog circuits design engineer at IC company for two years from 2019 to 2021, where she was involved in high-speed clock, I/O interface, analog driven-circuit designs. Her current research focuses on the design of energy-efficient smart temperature sensors. She was a recipient of the student travel grant award (STGA) at the 2025 ISSCC. She serves as a technical reviewer for IEEE JSSC, TCAS-I, TCAS-II, and IEEE Sensors Journal
Pui-In Mak received the Ph.D. degree from University of Macau (UM), Macao, China, in 2006. He is currently Chair Professor at UM Faculty of Science and Technology – ECE, and Director at the UM State Key Laboratory of Analog and Mixed-Signal VLSI and Deputy Director (Research) at the UM Institute of Microelectronics. His research interests are on analog and radio-frequency (RF) circuits and systems for wireless and multidisciplinary innovations. Prof. Mak received the Tencent Xplorer Prize in 2022, and is recognized as one of the Top Contributing Authors of ISSCC in 2023. He was inducted as an Overseas Expert of the Chinese Academy of Sciences since 2018. He is a Fellow of the IEEE, the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) and the UK Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC). He is a foreign academician of the Academy of Sciences of Lisbon, Portugal, since 2024. He received the Medal of Merit - Education from the Macao SAR government in 2024
Rui P. Martins received the Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering and Computers from the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, University of Lisbon, Portugal, in 1992, and was with that Department between October 1980 and July 2025, where he retired as Full Professor. From 1992 to 2025, was on leave from University of Lisbon and with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Macau, Macao, China, where he is a Chair-Professor since Aug. 2013. His research interests are on analog and mixed-signal VLSI design. He was the Founding Director of the State Key Laboratory of Analog and Mixed-Signal VLSI, between 2011 and 2022, and is currently the Director of the Institute of Microelectronics, both at the University of Macau, Macao, China. Prof. Rui Martins is an IEEE Life Fellow, received an Author Recognition Award at the 70 years of ISSCC, in 2023, as a Top Contributor with more than 50 papers, 3 Medals from Macao Government in 1999, 2001 and 2021, a National Award for Electrical Engineering by “Ordem dos Engenheiros” in Portugal in 2024, the National Friendship Award (Medal) in China in 2025, and the “Comendador da Ordem do Mérito (ComM) (Medal) in Portugal in 2026. Since July 2010 he is an Academician with the Lisbon Academy of Sciences, Portugal
Ka-Meng Lei received the B.Sc. degree in electrical and electronic engineering (EEE) and the Ph.D. degree in electrical and computer engineering (ECE) from the University of Macau, Macao, in 2012 and 2016, respectively. He is currently serving as an Associate professor at the University of Macau. Ka-Meng Lei has published 60+ refereed papers. He co-authored three books and two book chapters (all in SpringerNature). His current research interests include precision analog circuits, sensors and analog front-end interfaces, and high-resolution portable NMR platforms. Dr. Lei has been the ITPC Member of the ISSCC since 2026, and TPC Member of the IEEE International Conference on Integrated Circuits, Technologies and Applications (ICTA) since 2021. He currently serves as the Associate Editor of the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS and IEEE OPEN JOURNAL OF CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS
Corresponding author: kamenglei@um.edu.mo
Received Date: 2026-04-16
Revised Date: 2026-05-25

Available Online: 2026-06-11

Abstract

^§Haihua Li and Dan Shi contributed equally to this work.

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