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Enhancing Crack-Based Strain Sensors for Future Wearables and Robotics

Xing Chen1, Dongchan Li1, and Desheng Kong2,

+ Author Affiliations

 Corresponding author: Dongchan Li, dongchanli@hebut.edu.cn; Desheng Kong, dskong@nju.edu.cn

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040040CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.26040040

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[1]
Amjadi M, Kyung K U, Park I, et al. Stretchable, skin-mountable, and wearable strain sensors and their potential applications: A review. Adv Funct Mater, 2016, 26(11): 1678 doi: 10.1002/adfm.201504755
[2]
Kang D, Pikhitsa P V, Choi Y W, et al. Ultrasensitive mechanical crack-based sensor inspired by the spider sensory system. Nature, 2014, 516(7530): 222 doi: 10.1038/nature14002
[3]
Bai Y Z, Zhou Y L, Wu X Y, et al. Flexible strain sensors with ultra-high sensitivity and wide range enabled by crack-modulated electrical pathways. Nano Micro Lett, 2024, 17(1): 64 doi: 10.1007/s40820-024-01571-6
[4]
Qiu Y, Wang F N, Zhang Z, et al. Quantitative softness and texture bimodal haptic sensors for robotic clinical feature identification and intelligent picking. Sci Adv, 2024, 10(30): eadp0348 doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adp0348
[5]
Tao Y B, Yu T T, Jin C, et al. Impedance-modulated soft strain sensor with high stability for humanoid robots. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2025, 17(38): 54125 doi: 10.1021/acsami.5c13858
[6]
Yang H T, Li J L, Lim K Z, et al. Automatic strain sensor design via active learning and data augmentation for soft machines. Nat Mach Intell, 2022, 4(1): 84 doi: 10.1038/s42256-021-00434-8
[7]
Wang L, Xu X Y, Chen J, et al. Crack sensing of cardiomyocyte contractility with high sensitivity and stability. ACS Nano, 2022, 16(8): 12645 doi: 10.1021/acsnano.2c04260
[8]
Zhou Y L, Lian H X, Li Z L, et al. Crack engineering boosts the performance of flexible sensors. VIEW, 2022, 3(5): 20220025 doi: 10.1002/VIW.20220025
[9]
Yang Y N, Shi L J, Cao Z R, et al. Strain sensors with a high sensitivity and a wide sensing range based on a Ti3C2Tx (MXene) nanoparticle–nanosheet hybrid network. Adv Funct Mater, 2019, 29(14): 1807882 doi: 10.1002/adfm.201807882
[10]
Yang Y N, Cao Z R, He P, et al. Ti3C2Tx MXene-graphene composite films for wearable strain sensors featured with high sensitivity and large range of linear response. Nano Energy, 2019, 66: 104134 doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2019.104134
[11]
Zhou R H, Zhang Y F, Xu F, et al. Hierarchical synergistic structure for high resolution strain sensor with wide working range. Small, 2023, 19(34): 2301544 doi: 10.1002/smll.202301544
[12]
Hao Y N, Yan Q Y, Liu H J, et al. A stretchable, breathable, and self-adhesive electronic skin with multimodal sensing capabilities for human-centered healthcare. Adv Funct Mater, 2023, 33(44): 2303881 doi: 10.1002/adfm.202303881
[13]
Bai Y Z, Yin L T, Hou C, et al. Response regulation for epidermal fabric strain sensors via mechanical strategy. Adv Funct Mater, 2023, 33(31): 2214119 doi: 10.1002/adfm.202214119
[14]
Li L L, Zheng Y, Liu E P, et al. Ultrafast dynamic response of waterproof stretchable strain sensors based on wrinkle-templated microcracking. J Mater Chem A, 2022, 10(30): 16297 doi: 10.1039/D2TA04261D
[15]
Yang H T, Xiao X, Li Z P, et al. Wireless Ti3C2Tx MXene strain sensor with ultrahigh sensitivity and designated working windows for soft exoskeletons. ACS Nano, 2020, 14(9): 11860 doi: 10.1021/acsnano.0c04730
[16]
Ji J, Zhang C P, Yang S H, et al. High sensitivity and a wide sensing range flexible strain sensor based on the V-groove/wrinkles hierarchical array. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2022, 14(20): 24059 doi: 10.1021/acsami.2c04773
[17]
Wang Y, Gong S, Gómez D, et al. Unconventional Janus properties of enokitake-like gold nanowire films. ACS Nano, 2018, 12(8): 8717 doi: 10.1021/acsnano.8b04748
[18]
Wang Y, Gong S, Wang S J, et al. Standing enokitake-like nanowire films for highly stretchable elastronics. ACS Nano, 2018, 12(10): 9742 doi: 10.1021/acsnano.8b05019
[19]
Yamada T, Hayamizu Y, Yamamoto Y, et al. A stretchable carbon nanotube strain sensor for human-motion detection. Nature Nanotech, 2011, 6(5): 296 doi: 10.1038/nnano.2011.36
Fig. 1.  (Color online) Schematic illustration of crack-based strain sensors for wearable and robotic applications.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint
Fig. 2.  (Color online) Different approaches for extending the measurement range of crack-based strain sensors. (a) Hierarchical flexible sensor based on a CB film sputtered with Au from Ref. [11]; Copyright (2023) WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (b) Cross-sectional SEM image of the sensor, showing the P-layer, S-layer, I-layer, and E-layer. The P-layer represents the protective layer to guard against external influences; the S-layer represents sensing layer to collect mechanical signals; and E-layer represents electrode layer to collect biopotential signals in skin surface; the I-layer represents isolated layer to avoid cross-talk between biomechanical and bioelectrical sensing. Scale bar, 100 μm from Ref. [12]; Copyright (2023) WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (c) Schematic illustration of a textile-based strain sensor from Ref. [13]; Copyright (2023) WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (d) Photograph of a fiber-based strain sensor wound around a glass rod from Ref. [14]; Copyright (2022) Royal Society Chemistry. (e) Schematic illustration of a flexible sensor fabricated using a wrinkle-based strategy from Ref. [15]; Copyright (2020) American Chemical Society. (f) Fabrication process of a flexible strain sensor based on V-groove arrays, where the angle between the V-groove direction and the pre-stretching direction is denoted as θ from Ref. [16]; Copyright (2022) American Chemical Society. (g) Typical side-view SEM image of standing enokitake-like nanowire-based gold films. Scale bar: 1 μm from Ref. [18]; Copyright (2018) American Chemical Society. (h) Schematic illustration of a multilayer carbon nanotube (CNT) film strain sensor from Ref. [19]; Copyright (2011) Springer Nature. (i) Model of a basic circuit based on thin films from Ref. [19]; Copyright (2011) Springer Nature.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint
[1]
Amjadi M, Kyung K U, Park I, et al. Stretchable, skin-mountable, and wearable strain sensors and their potential applications: A review. Adv Funct Mater, 2016, 26(11): 1678 doi: 10.1002/adfm.201504755
[2]
Kang D, Pikhitsa P V, Choi Y W, et al. Ultrasensitive mechanical crack-based sensor inspired by the spider sensory system. Nature, 2014, 516(7530): 222 doi: 10.1038/nature14002
[3]
Bai Y Z, Zhou Y L, Wu X Y, et al. Flexible strain sensors with ultra-high sensitivity and wide range enabled by crack-modulated electrical pathways. Nano Micro Lett, 2024, 17(1): 64 doi: 10.1007/s40820-024-01571-6
[4]
Qiu Y, Wang F N, Zhang Z, et al. Quantitative softness and texture bimodal haptic sensors for robotic clinical feature identification and intelligent picking. Sci Adv, 2024, 10(30): eadp0348 doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adp0348
[5]
Tao Y B, Yu T T, Jin C, et al. Impedance-modulated soft strain sensor with high stability for humanoid robots. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2025, 17(38): 54125 doi: 10.1021/acsami.5c13858
[6]
Yang H T, Li J L, Lim K Z, et al. Automatic strain sensor design via active learning and data augmentation for soft machines. Nat Mach Intell, 2022, 4(1): 84 doi: 10.1038/s42256-021-00434-8
[7]
Wang L, Xu X Y, Chen J, et al. Crack sensing of cardiomyocyte contractility with high sensitivity and stability. ACS Nano, 2022, 16(8): 12645 doi: 10.1021/acsnano.2c04260
[8]
Zhou Y L, Lian H X, Li Z L, et al. Crack engineering boosts the performance of flexible sensors. VIEW, 2022, 3(5): 20220025 doi: 10.1002/VIW.20220025
[9]
Yang Y N, Shi L J, Cao Z R, et al. Strain sensors with a high sensitivity and a wide sensing range based on a Ti3C2Tx (MXene) nanoparticle–nanosheet hybrid network. Adv Funct Mater, 2019, 29(14): 1807882 doi: 10.1002/adfm.201807882
[10]
Yang Y N, Cao Z R, He P, et al. Ti3C2Tx MXene-graphene composite films for wearable strain sensors featured with high sensitivity and large range of linear response. Nano Energy, 2019, 66: 104134 doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2019.104134
[11]
Zhou R H, Zhang Y F, Xu F, et al. Hierarchical synergistic structure for high resolution strain sensor with wide working range. Small, 2023, 19(34): 2301544 doi: 10.1002/smll.202301544
[12]
Hao Y N, Yan Q Y, Liu H J, et al. A stretchable, breathable, and self-adhesive electronic skin with multimodal sensing capabilities for human-centered healthcare. Adv Funct Mater, 2023, 33(44): 2303881 doi: 10.1002/adfm.202303881
[13]
Bai Y Z, Yin L T, Hou C, et al. Response regulation for epidermal fabric strain sensors via mechanical strategy. Adv Funct Mater, 2023, 33(31): 2214119 doi: 10.1002/adfm.202214119
[14]
Li L L, Zheng Y, Liu E P, et al. Ultrafast dynamic response of waterproof stretchable strain sensors based on wrinkle-templated microcracking. J Mater Chem A, 2022, 10(30): 16297 doi: 10.1039/D2TA04261D
[15]
Yang H T, Xiao X, Li Z P, et al. Wireless Ti3C2Tx MXene strain sensor with ultrahigh sensitivity and designated working windows for soft exoskeletons. ACS Nano, 2020, 14(9): 11860 doi: 10.1021/acsnano.0c04730
[16]
Ji J, Zhang C P, Yang S H, et al. High sensitivity and a wide sensing range flexible strain sensor based on the V-groove/wrinkles hierarchical array. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2022, 14(20): 24059 doi: 10.1021/acsami.2c04773
[17]
Wang Y, Gong S, Gómez D, et al. Unconventional Janus properties of enokitake-like gold nanowire films. ACS Nano, 2018, 12(8): 8717 doi: 10.1021/acsnano.8b04748
[18]
Wang Y, Gong S, Wang S J, et al. Standing enokitake-like nanowire films for highly stretchable elastronics. ACS Nano, 2018, 12(10): 9742 doi: 10.1021/acsnano.8b05019
[19]
Yamada T, Hayamizu Y, Yamamoto Y, et al. A stretchable carbon nanotube strain sensor for human-motion detection. Nature Nanotech, 2011, 6(5): 296 doi: 10.1038/nnano.2011.36

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    Received: 23 April 2026 Revised: 27 May 2026 Online: Accepted Manuscript: 08 July 2026

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      Article Navigation >  Journal of Semiconductors  > 2026  > Accepted Manuscript
      Xing Chen, Dongchan Li, Desheng Kong. Enhancing Crack-Based Strain Sensors for Future Wearables and Robotics[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2026, In Press. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040040 ****X Chen, D C Li, and D S Kong, Enhancing Crack-Based Strain Sensors for Future Wearables and Robotics[J]. J. Semicond., 2026, accepted doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040040
      Citation:
      Xing Chen, Dongchan Li, Desheng Kong. Enhancing Crack-Based Strain Sensors for Future Wearables and Robotics[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2026, In Press. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040040 ****
      X Chen, D C Li, and D S Kong, Enhancing Crack-Based Strain Sensors for Future Wearables and Robotics[J]. J. Semicond., 2026, accepted doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040040
      shu

      Enhancing Crack-Based Strain Sensors for Future Wearables and Robotics

      DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/26040040
      CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.26040040
      • 1.

        College of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Engineering Research Center of Seawater Utilization Technology of Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Reliability and Intelligence of Electrical Equipment, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300130, China

      • 2.

        College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, and Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Artificial Functional Materials, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China

      More Information
      • Xing Chen is currently a graduate student in the College of Chemical Engineering and Technology at Hebei University of Technology. His research focuses on the development and application of functional composite materials
      • Dongchan Li is a Professor in the College of Chemical Engineering and Technology at Hebei University of Technology. Her research interests center on the design and synthesis of functional composite materials for flexible electronics and energy applications
      • Desheng Kong is a Professor in the College of Engineering and Applied Sciences at Nanjing University and serves as an Associate Editor for npj Flexible Electronics. Dr. Kong's current research focuses on advanced materials, novel device designs, and system integration strategies for stretchable and bio-integrated electronic devices
      • Corresponding author: dongchanli@hebut.edu.cn; dskong@nju.edu.cn
      • Received Date: 2026-04-23
      • Revised Date: 2026-05-27
        • Available Online: 2026-07-08

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