Micro-LEDs in biomedicine: from implantable optogenetics to intelligent theranostics

Yihan Huang; Huaqi Liu; Yun Lin; Junwei Hu; Li Zou; Shula Chen; Ouying Chen; Xiaoyan Yi; Liancheng Wang

doi:10.1088/1674-4926/26050037

J. Semicond. > In Press

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Micro-LEDs in biomedicine: from implantable optogenetics to intelligent theranostics

Yihan Huang^{1, §}, Huaqi Liu^{2, §}, Yun Lin², Junwei Hu², Li Zou¹, Shula Chen³, Ouying Chen^1,, Xiaoyan Yi^4, and Liancheng Wang^2,

+ Author Affiliations

1. School of Nursing, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, China
2. State Key Laboratory of Precision Manufacturing for Extreme Service Performance, College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
3. College of Materials Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
4. Institute of Semiconductors, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100083, China
^§Yihan Huang and Huaqi Liu contributed equally to this work and should be considered as co-first authors.

Author Bio:

Yihan Huang is currently studying at Hunan University of Chinese Medicine. Her primary research focuses on the mechanisms of type H hypertension and atherosclerosis, alongside interdisciplinary research spanning medicine and engineering.

Ouying Chen holds a Ph.D, is a Second-Class Professor and doctoral supervisor, primarily engaged in research on the prevention and nursing care of cardiovascular diseases.

Xiaoyan Yi received her Ph.D. degree from the Institute of Semiconductors, Chinese Academy of Sciences. She is currently a Research Professor at the Institute of Semiconductors, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Her research focuses on wide-bandgap semiconductor materials, novel nitride optoelectronic devices, and functional optoelectronic integrated chip technologies.

Liancheng Wang obtained his Ph.D. and now works as a Professor and doctoral supervisor at Central South University. His research interests focus on GaN-based Micro-LED devices, micro-nano optoelectronic fabrication, and integrated optoelectronic systems for display.

Corresponding author: Ouying Chen, 1577554027@qq.com; Xiaoyan Yi, spring@semi.ac.cn; Liancheng Wang, liancheng_wang@csu.edu.cn

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/26050037CSTR: 32376.14.1674-4926.26050037

Abstract: Micro-scale light-emitting diodes (Micro-LEDs) are evolving from display devices to powerful biomedical tools owing to their miniaturization, low power consumption, flexibility and multi-wavelength capability. This review summarizes advances in Micro-LED biomedicine (2024−2026). It introduces core enabling technologies and classifies applications into implantable systems, wearable platforms and brain−computer interfaces, covering optogenetics, cardiac/tumor therapy, epidermal healthcare, visual prostheses and all-optical neural interfaces. Key challenges including biocompatibility, heat dissipation and packaging are discussed. Prospects such as closed-loop intelligent systems, degradable devices and clinical translation are proposed. This review highlights Micro-LEDs’ great potential for next-generation precision medicine.

Keywords: Micro-LED, optogenetics, implantable biomedical device, wearable phototherapy, brain−computer computer interface

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Fig. 1. (Color online) Biomedical applications of microscale Micro-LED technology.

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Fig. 2. (Color online) Core technical features of μ-ILED technology. (a) Size comparison: Micro-LEDs (50 μm) are scaled to match biological neurons (~15 μm), far smaller than traditional LEDs (1 mm). (b) Low thermal impact: Brain-implanted μ-ILED shows <0.1°C temperature rise at 20 Hz stimulation, ensuring biocompatibility. (c) Flexible/stretchable wearable device with island-bridge structure, enabling conformal integration with skin for next-generation healthcare applications.

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Fig. 3. (Color online) Evolution of Micro-LED-based neural interfaces, from fiber tethering to wireless, high-resolution primate stimulation. (a) Wireless, injectable, and transcranial optogenetic systems achieve stable long-term modulation (>300 h) with bioinspired 3D helical interconnects (stretchability >90%) and wireless power transfer, enabling reliable operation in freely behaving animals^[21]. (b) Flexible optical cuffs (0.127 g) with four individually addressable micro-LEDs achieve sub-fascicle resolution peripheral nerve modulation, inducing fine motor control (elbow/wrist flexion, finger abduction) and maintaining function for up to 12 weeks^[34]. (c) Hybrid-integrated large-scale opto-electrophysiology interfaces integrate 256 recording electrodes and 128 stimulation channels on an 8-shank silicon probe, achieving record channel densities (0.56 channels/mm², 109.71 channels/g) and identifying >160 isolated single units in vivo^[46].

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Fig. 4. (Color online) Wearable Micro-LED systems for health monitoring, phototherapy, and sensory rehabilitation. (a) Skin-like health patch (SHP) featuring a 15-μm-thick stretchable substrate integrating a 17 × 7 pixel red Micro-LED display and a PPG sensor. It operates under 30% tensile strain with a total power consumption of 16.5  mW and achieves a signal-to-noise ratio >21  dB, enabling real-time heart rate display (adapted from Ref. [20]). (b) Wireless, battery-free pulse oximeter using red/infrared dual-wavelength Micro-LEDs and RF energy harvesting, demonstrating good consistency with commercial oximeters in venous occlusion tests (adapted from Ref. [59]). (c) Uniform area-source SµLED patch (2025) integrating 900 thin-film Micro-LEDs in a 2 × 2 cm² area with a light diffusion layer, achieving superior melanogenesis inhibition via downregulation of MITF and tyrosinase compared to traditional LEDs (adapted from Ref. [63]).Ophthalmic and auditory rehabilitation. (d) 16-channel optical cochlear implant (oCI) with individually addressable thin-film Micro-LEDs (60 × 60 μm², 100 μm pitch). Optogenetic stimulation of CatCh-expressing spiral ganglion neurons evokes auditory brainstem responses with high spectral selectivity, and the device remains stable after 10 000 bending cycles (adapted from Ref. [23]). (e) Smart wireless near-infrared LED contact lens integrating a Micro-LED array, ASIC chip, and wireless power system. In a rabbit model of diabetic retinopathy, 8-week treatment (120  μW, three times weekly) significantly reduces retinal vascular hyperpermeability without thermal damage (adapted from Ref. [22]).

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Fig. 5. (Color online) A mesoscale optogenetics system for high-resolution primate cortical stimulation. (a) System architecture. A million-pixel Micro-LED panel (1280 × 720, 5 μm pitch) projects light patterns onto the cortical surface via a custom wide-field lens. A custom cranial implant with kinematic coupling ensures long-term stability and precise re-alignment. Irradiance at the image plane is linearly tunable from 0 to 3 mW/mm² per pixel. (b) ChRger exhibits ~10-fold higher light sensitivity than ChR2, enabling robust neuronal activation at irradiance as low as 0.03 mW/mm² in both mice and monkeys. (c) Single-pixel stimulation evokes cortical responses with a Gaussian profile (σ ≈ 60 μm). Adjacent stimulation sites are resolvable at >80 μm separation (overlap <50%), and two simultaneously activated pixels can be resolved at >120 μm spacing. (d) Stimulation of 144 sites in macaque V1 evokes saccades with retinotopically organized endpoints (R² > 75%), forming a precise map that remains stable over multiple days (mean drift <0.1° per day). Behavioral effects persist for over one year, demonstrating the system’s robustness and long-term stability (adapted from Ref. [26]).

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Fig. 6. (Color online) Core challenges for implantable micro-LED biomedical devices.

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Table 1. comparison of mainstream optoelectronic platforms for biomedical optical stimulation.

Platform	Feature size	Flexibility	Power consumption	Multi-wavelength integration	Implantation compatibility
Optical fiber	100–200 μm diameter	Rigid, non-bendable	High (external laser)	Requires light source replacement, hard to integrate	High invasiveness, physically tethered
Conventional LED	Millimeter scale	Rigid, non-conformal	Relatively high	Mostly single wavelength	Too bulky for implantation
OLED	Hundreds of micrometers	Good flexibility	Moderate	Stacked structure for multi-color	Poor water/oxygen stability, unsuitable for long-term implantation
Laser-based system	Hundreds of micrometers spot	No flexibility, fiber-guided	High	Single wavelength	Requires fiber delivery, invasive
Micro-LED	5–50 μm	Stretchable and bendable	Low (high efficiency in pulse mode)	Multi-wavelength via heterogeneous integration	Minimally invasive/injectable, suitable for long-term implantation

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Table 2. Key technological milestones of Micro-LED biomedical applications.

Year	Milestone event	Technological significance	Representative reference
2013	Injectable wireless optogenetic probe first proposed	Established the technical paradigm of Micro-LED-based implantable bioelectronics	Kim et al., Science^[7]
2015	Soft, stretchable fully implantable optogenetic system developed	Expanded applications to peripheral nerve and spinal cord modulation	Park et al., Nat. Biotechnol.^[31]
2020	16-channel optical cochlear implant validated in vivo	Achieved high spectral selectivity for auditory rehabilitation	Dieter et al., EMBO Mol. Med^[23]
2024	Optogenetic vagus nerve stimulation for myocardial regeneration; implantable immuno-photodynamic tumor therapy	Extended to cardiac regenerative medicine and combined cancer immunotherapy	Yuan et al., Int. J. Biol. Sci.^[32]; Choi et al., Biomater. Res^[33]
2025	Sub-fascicle resolution peripheral nerve modulation; wireless transcranial optogenetics enabling artificial perception	Realized high-resolution neuromodulation and minimally invasive brain−computer interaction	Zhou et al., Nat. Commun^[34]; Wu et al., Nat. Neurosci^[35]
2026	Million-pixel mesoscale optogenetics in macaque cortex; smart closed-loop arrhythmia control platform; 300+ h chronic implantation stability validated	Completed non-human primate validation and system-level intelligent closed-loop breakthrough	Li et al., Neuron^[26]; Greer et al., Nat. Commun^[36]; Deng et al., Adv. Sci^[37]

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Table 3. Dimensional characteristics of representative biomedical Micro-LED devices.

Advantages	Traditional fiber/LED	Micro-LED	Biomedical significance
Tissue damage	Diameter 100–200 μm, requires puncture tract	Thickness <10 μm, injectable implantation	Reduced neuronal loss and gliosis
Spatial precision	Millimeter-scale light diffusion	Micrometer-scale spot (<50 μm)	Targeting individual neurons or subcellular structures
Multi-channel density	Single channel or low density	>500 PPI array integration	High-resolution neuromodulation
Implantation site	Limited to deep brain nuclei	Can cover cortical surface, peripheral nerves	Extends to dynamic tissues like spinal cord, heart

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Table 4. Overview of mainstream stretchable design strategies for Micro-LED devices.

Research work	Device type	Device size	Total thickness	Total weight	Ref.
Kim Science 2013	Injectable optogenetic probe	50 × 50 μm²	~20 μm	29 mg	[7]
Lee Sci Adv 2021	Skin-like health patch	Pixel size N/A	15 μm	Powered by 3.8 V battery	[20]
Lu PNAS 2018	Wireless fluorescence photometer	µ-ILED + µ-IPD	~150 μm	29 mg	[29]
Dieter EMBO 2020	Optical cochlear implant	60 × 60 μm²	On flexible substrate	–	[23]

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Table 5. Overview of mainstream stretchable design strategies for Micro-LED devices.

Strategy	Principle	Representative	Stretchability
Wavy/Buckled structure	Pre-stretch substrate, then release to form wavy interconnects	Lee Sci Adv 2021^[20]	Stable operation under 30% strain
Bioinspired 3D helical interconnect structure	Helical architecture mimicking the tendril mechanics of climbing plants	Adv. Opt Mat 2026^[21]	Stretchability up to 91%, Young’s modulus of 3.58MPa
Serpentine interconnects	Design curved metal lines to absorb strain	Kim Science 2013^[7]	Suitable for low-density arrays
Island-bridge structure	Rigid device islands + flexible interconnect bridges	Park Nat Biotechnol 2015^[31]	Full functionality under 50% strain
Intrinsically stretchable materials	Conductive polymers or liquid metals	Advanced research stage	>100% stretch potential

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Table 6. Implementation strategies for multi-wavelength Micro-LED optogenetic stimulation.

Implementation method	Principle	Advantages	Limitations	Representative work
Heterogeneous integration	Transferring µ-ILEDs of different materials (GaN blue, GaAs red) onto the same substrate	High spectral purity, individually addressable	Complex process	Kim Science 2013^[7]
Fluorescence conversion	Blue µ-ILED combined with phosphor/quantum dots	Simple process, scalable	Conversion efficiency, spectral broadening	Kim Science 2013 (Green conversion)^[7]
Homogeneous multi-QW	Designing multiple emission colors on a single epi-wafer	Monolithic integration, high density	High material growth difficulty	Cell Reports Physical Science^[42]

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Table 7. Overview of mainstream wireless power transfer schemes for implantable Micro-LED biomedical systems.

Scheme	Principle	Operate frequency	Power output	Application scenario	Representative work
RF energy harvesting	Near-field/far-field RF coupling	910 MHz	4.08 mW (at 1 m distance)	Freely moving small animals	Kim Science 2013^[7]
Near-field magnetic coupling	Resonant inductive coupling	13.56 MHz	Adjustable	Implantable deep devices	Park oral inflammation device^[43]
Ultrasound power transfer	Piezoelectric transducer	MHz range	Under development	Deep tissues	University of California, Berkeley^[25]
Photovoltaic power	NIR light illuminating an implanted PV cell	–	–	Conceptual stage	Lu L Y Adv Energy Mater 2018^[5]

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Table 8. comparison of packaging materials for biomedical Micro-LED implant systems.

Material	Advantages	Limitations	Application example
PDMS	Flexible, breathable, easy to process	Moderate barrier to moisture/oxygen	Encapsulation layer in Kim Science 2013^[7]
Parylene-C	Vapor-deposited, conformal, FDA-approved	Internal stress, adhesion issues	Sekiguchi flexible arrays^[41]
Ecoflex	Extremely high elasticity	Low mechanical strength	Stretchable patches^[31]
Kapton/PI	High-temperature resistance, compatible with photolithography	Higher stiffness	Probe substrate^[29]
Silk fibroin	Biodegradable, temporary fixation	Controllable dissolution time	Injection-assist layer^[7]

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Table 9. Core design principles of implantable Micro-LED systems.

Design dimension	Key requirements	Implementation strategies	Representative works
Miniaturization	Cellular scale (<100 μm), ultra-thin (<20 μm)	Transfer printing, laser lift-off	Kim Science 2013^[7]
Flexibility/stretchability	Match tissue modulus, tolerate dynamic strain	Island-bridge structures, wavy interconnects	Park Nat Biotechnol 2015^[31]
Thermal management	Temperature rise <1−2 °C	Miniaturized heat sinking, FEM optimization	Greer Nat Commun 2026^[36]
Wireless power	Break physical tethers, enable free behavior	RF harvesting, magnetic coupling	Multiple works^{[15, 43]}
Long-term packaging	>3 months stable function, low immune response	Parylene-C, PDMS multi-layer encapsulation	Greer Nat Commun 2026^[36]
Multi-channel density	High spatial resolution, independent addressing	Matrix addressing, CMOS integration	Lingang Lab Neuron 2026^[26]

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Table 10. Typical challenges and engineering strategies for epidermal wireless oximeter systems.

Challenge	Specific problem	Solution strategy
Skin conformability	Motion artifacts affect signal quality	Ultra-thin flexible substrate, stretchable interconnects
Power consumption	Energy demands for long-term continuous monitoring	Low-power Micro-LEDs, wireless power transfer
Signal accuracy	Consistency with clinical-grade devices	Multi-wavelength compensation, AI denoising
Multi-parameter integration	Covering multiple physiological indices in a single device	Time multiplexing, multi-spectral design

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Table 11. Comparison of anti-melanogenic effects between SMicro-LED and traditional LED phototherapy devices.

Measured indicator	SMicro-LED effect	Comparison with traditional LED
Melanin content	Significantly reduced	Superior to traditional LED
Melan-A	Significantly down regulated	Superior to traditional LED
Tyrosinase activity	Significantly inhibited	Superior to traditional LED
MITF transcription factor	Significantly down regulated	Superior to traditional LED

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Table 12. Summary of wearable Micro-LED applications for cutaneous and sensory rehabilitation.

Application area	Target tissue	Micro-LED wavelength	Key mechanism
Hair growth	Hair follicle	Red ~650 nm	Wnt/β-catenin pathway activation^[25]
Skin lightening	Melanocytes	Specific wavelengths	MITF/Tyrosinase inhibition^[63]
Diabetic retinopathy	Retinal vessels	Far-red/NIR	Reduced vascular hyperpermeability^[22]
Oral inflammation	Gingival tissue	NIR 808 nm	Photobiomodulation promoting repair^[43]
Auditory rehabilitation	Spiral ganglion neurons	Blue ~470 nm	Light-sensitive protein activation^[23]

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Table 13. Comparison of mainstream wireless power transfer schemes for implantable biomedical Micro-LED systems.

Scheme	Advantages	Limitations	Representative work
RF Energy harvesting	Long range (meter-scale), mature tech	Power decay with distance, tissue absorption	Kim Science 2013^[7]
Near-field magnetic coupling	High efficiency, high power	Short range (cm-scale), alignment sensitive	Park oral device^[43]
Ultrasound	Deep penetration, high safety	Large transducer size, efficiency needs improvement	UC Berkeley team^[25]
Photovoltaic	Potential for infinite power	Requires external light, limited depth	Conceptual^[5]

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Table 14. Multimodal functional modules, integration strategies and application values for Micro-LED neural interfaces.

Functional module	Integration method	Application value
Microelectrode array	Monolithic integration with Micro-LEDs	Real-time recording of stimulation effects, closed-loop control
Microfluidic channel	Lamination or sidewall integration	Local drug delivery, gene therapy
Biochemical sensor	Functionalized coating or integrated sensor	Monitoring neurotransmitters, pH, oxygen tension
Temperature sensor	Metal resistor or thermocouple	Thermal safety management, tissue status monitoring

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Table 15. Key dimensions and implementation approaches for personalized Micro-LED phototherapy.

Dimension	Personalized parameters	Implementation method
Wavelength	Tailored to photosensitizer/drug absorption peak	Multi-wavelength Micro-LED array, tunable wavelength
Dose	Tailored to lesion depth, size	Adjustable optical power, programmable pulse patterns
Timing	Tailored to circadian rhythm, treatment phase	Programmable stimulation sequences, closed-loop feedback
Spatial	Tailored to lesion shape	High-density array, spatial light modulation

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Table 16. Five-to-ten-year development roadmap for biomedical Micro-LED technology.

Time frame	Key Technological breakthroughs	Representative applications
Short-term (1−3 years)	High-density array yield improvement (>95%) standardization of multi-wavelength heterogeneous integration validation of long-term flexible packaging stability (>6 months)	Commercialization of wearable phototherapy products Widespread use in rodent neuroscience research Preclinical studies of optical cochlear implants
Medium-term (3−5 years)	Prototype validation of closed-loop intelligent systems Controlled functional lifetime for degradable devices (1−4 weeks) mature multimodal integration platforms	Validation of visual prostheses in macaque models Preclinical studies of wireless pacemakers Clinical studies of diabetic retinopathy phototherapy
Long-term (5−10 years)	Fully integrated AI-Micro-LED systems Large-scale single-neuron resolution interfaces Established clinical protocols for personalized phototherapy	Human clinical trials of visual prostheses Market approval of closed-loop epilepsy control systems Clinical application of degradable phototherapy devices

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Received: 22 May 2026 Revised: 09 July 2026 Online: Accepted Manuscript: 03 August 2026Uncorrected proof: 03 August 2026

Micro-scale light-emitting diodes (Micro-LEDs) are evolving from display devices to powerful biomedical tools owing to their miniaturization, low power consumption, flexibility and multi-wavelength capability. This review summarizes advances in Micro-LED biomedicine (2024−2026). It introduces core enabling technologies and classifies applications into implantable systems, wearable platforms and brain−computer interfaces, covering optogenetics, cardiac/tumor therapy, epidermal healthcare, visual prostheses and all-optical neural interfaces. Key challenges including biocompatibility, heat dissipation and packaging are discussed. Prospects such as closed-loop intelligent systems, degradable devices and clinical translation are proposed. This review highlights Micro-LEDs’ great potential for next-generation precision medicine.

^§Yihan Huang and Huaqi Liu contributed equally to this work and should be considered as co-first authors.

Micro-LEDs in biomedicine: from implantable optogenetics to intelligent theranostics

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Micro-LEDs in biomedicine: from implantable optogenetics to intelligent theranostics

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